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Free Writing/Journalism eBooksThe Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language by Sherwin Cody. The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Art Of Writing & Speaking The English Language, by Sherwin Cody This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
Title: The Art Of Writing & Speaking The English Language Word-Study and Composition & Rhetoric
Author: Sherwin Cody
Release Date: November 5, 2006 [EBook #19719]
Language: English
Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE ART OF WRITING ***
Produced by Andrew Hodson
Transcriber's note: Letters with an extra space before them show those that should be removed & letters with { } around them show those added as there are some mistakes in the book & because plain text is used. (I changed mathematical & meter but it maybe that they are correct and the others are wrong). I did not change _Shak{e}spe{a}re, mortgag eor_ & some words in lists. (The N word should have a capital!)
I've used superscript _a_ for broad _a_ (instead of 2 dots under it). & superscripted _a_ & _o_ (Spanish ordinals) before _o_ for ligatures. A long vowel should have a straight line over it but I've shown them by using a colon : after them. Short vowels are shown by a grave accent mark after instead of a curved line over the letter. An equals sign = after a word shows that the next 1 should start the next column. "Special SYSTEM Edition" brought from frontispiece.
THE ART _of_ WRITING & SPEAKING _The_ ENGLISH LANGUAGE
SHERWIN CODY
Special S Y S T E M Edition
WORD-STUDY
The Old Greek Press _Chicago New{ }York Boston_
_Revised Edition_.
_Copyright,1903,_
BY SHERWIN CODY.
Note. The thanks of the author are due to Dr. Edwin H. Lewis, of the Lewis Institute, Chicago, and to Prof. John F. Genung, Ph. D., of Amherst College, for suggestions made after reading the proof of this series.
CONTENTS.
THE ART OF WRITING AND SPEAKING THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION. 7
WORD-STUDY
INTRODUCTION---THE STUDY OF SPELLING
CHAPTER I. LETTERS AND SOUNDS {VOWELS CONSONANTS EXERCISES THE DICTIONARY}
CHAPTER II. WORD-BUILDING {PREFIXES}
CHAPTER III. WORD-BUILDING---Rules and Applications {EXCEPTIONS}
CHAPTER IV. PRONUNCIATION
CHAPTER V. A SPELLING DRILL
APPENDIX
The Art of Writing and Speaking the English Language
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
If there is a subject of really universal interest and utility, it is the art of writing and speaking one's own language effectively. It is the basis of culture, as we all know; but it is infinitely more than that: it is the basis of business. No salesman can sell anything unless he can explain the merits of his goods in _effective_ English (among our people), or can write an advertisement equally effective, or present his ideas, and the facts, in a letter. Indeed, the way we talk, and write letters, largely determines our success in life.
Now it is well for us to face at once the counter-statement that the most ignorant and uncultivated men often succeed best in business, and that misspelled, ungrammatical advertisements have brought in millions of dollars. It is an acknowledged fact that our business circulars and letters are far inferior in correctness to those of Great Britain; yet they are more effective in getting business. As far as spelling is concerned, we know that some of the masters of literature have been atrocious spellers and many suppose that when one can sin in such company, sinning is, as we might say, a "beauty spot", a defect in which we can even take pride.
Let us examine the facts in the case more closely. First of all, language is no more than a medium; it is like air to the creatures of the land or water to fishes. If it is perfectly clear and pure, we do not notice it any more than we notice pure air when the sun is shining in a clear sky, or the taste of pure cool water when we drink a glass on a hot day. Unless the sun is shining, there is no brightness; unless the water is cool, there is no refreshment. The source of all our joy in the landscape, of the luxuriance of fertile nature, is the sun and not the air. Nature would be more prodigal in Mexico than in Greenland, even if the air in Mexico were as full of soot and smoke as the air of Pittsburg{h}, or loaded with the acid from a chemical factory. So it is with language. Language is merely a medium for thoughts, emotions, the intelligence of a finely wrought brain, and a good mind will make far more out of a bad medium than a poor mind will make out of the best. A great violinist will draw such music from the cheapest violin that the world is astonished. However is that any reason why the great violinist should choose to play on a poor violin; or should one say nothing of the smoke nuisance in Chicago because more light and heat penetrate its murky atmosphere than are to be found in cities only a few miles farther north? The truth is, we must regard the bad spelling nuisance, the bad grammar nuisance, the inártistic and rambling language nuisance, precisely as we would the smoke nuisance, the sewer-gas nuisance, the stock-yards' smell nuisance. Some dainty people prefer pure air and correct language; but we now recognize that purity is something more than an esthetic fad, that it is essential to our health and well-being, and therefore it becomes a matter of universal public interest, in language as well as in air.
There is a general belief that while bad air may be a positive evil influence, incorrect use of language is at most no more than a negative evil: that while it may be a good thing to be correct, no special harm is involved in being incorrect. Let us look into this point.
While language as the medium of thought may be compared to air as the medium of the sun's influence, in other respects it is like the skin of the body; a scurvy skin shows bad blood within, and a scurvy language shows inaccurate thought and a confused mind. And as a disease once fixed on the skin reacts and poisons the blood in turn as it has first been poisoned by the blood, so careless use of language if indulged reacts on the mind to make it permanently and increasingly careless, illogical, and inaccurate in its thinking.
The ordinary person will probably not believe this, because he conceives of good use of language as an accomplishment to be learned from books, a prim system of genteel manners to be put on when occasion demands, a sort of superficial education in the correct thing, or, as the boys would say, "the proper caper." In this, however, he is mistaken. Language which expresses the thought with strict logical accuracy is correct language, and language which is sufficiently rich in its resources to express thought fully, in all its lights and bearings, is effective language. If the writer or speaker has a sufficient stock of words and forms at his disposal, he has only to use them in a strictly logical way and with sufficient fulness to be both correct and effective. If his mind can always be trusted to work accurately, he need not know a word of grammar except what he has imbibed unconsciously in getting his stock of words and expressions. Formal grammar is purely for critical purposes. It is no more than a standard measuring stick by which to try the work that has been done and find out if it is imperfect at any point. Of course constant correction of inaccuracies schools the mind and puts it on its guard so that it will be more careful the next time it attempts expression; but we cannot avoid the conclusion that if the mind lacks material, lacks knowledge of the essential elements of the language, it should go to the original source from which it got its first supply, namely to reading and hearing that which is acknowledged to be correct and sufficient---as the child learns from its mother. All the scholastic and analytic grammar in the world will not enrich the mind in language to any appreciable extent.
And now we may consider another objector, who says, "I have studied grammar for years and it has done me no good." In view of what has just been said, we may easily concede that such is very likely to have been the case. A measuring stick is of little value unless you have something to measure. Language cannot be acquired, only tested, by analysis, and grammar is an analytic, not a constructive science.
We have compared bad use of language to a scurvy condition of the skin. To cure the skin we must doctor the blood; and to improve the language we should begin by teaching the mind to think. But that, you will say, is a large undertaking. Yes, but after all it is the most direct and effective way. All education should be in the nature of teaching the mind to think, and the teaching of language consists in teaching thinking in connection with word forms and expression through language. The unfortunate thing is that teachers of language have failed to go to the root of the trouble, and enormous effort has counted for nothing, and besides has led to discouragement.
The American people are noted for being hasty in all they do. Their manufactures are quickly made and cheap. They have not hitherto had time to secure that perfection in minute details which constitutes "quality." The slow-going Europeans still excel in nearly all fine and high-grade forms of manufacture---fine pottery, fine carpets and rugs, fine cloth, fine bronze and other art wares. In our language, too, we are hasty, and therefore imperfect. Fine logical accuracy requires more time than we have had to give to it, and we read the newspapers, which are very poor models of language, instead of books, which should be far better. Our standard of business letters is very low. It is rare to find a letter of any length without one or more errors of language, to say nothing of frequent errors in spelling made by ignorant stenographers and not corrected by the business men who sign the letters.
But a change is coming over us. We have suddenly taken to reading books, and while they are not always the best books, they are better than newspapers. And now a young business man feels that it is distinctly to his advantage if he can dictate a thoroughly good letter to his superior or to a well informed customer. Good letters raise the tone of a business house, poor letters give the idea that it is a cheapjack concern. In social life, well written letters, like good conversational powers, bring friends and introduce the writer into higher circles. A command of language is the index of culture, and the uneducated man or woman who has become wealthy or has gained any special success is eager to put on this wedding garment of refinement. If he continues to regard a good command of language as a wedding garment, he will probably fail in his effort; but a few will discover the way to self-education and actively follow it to its conclusion adding to their first success this new achievement.
But we may even go farther. The right kind of language-teaching will also give us power, a kind of eloquence, a skill in the use of words, which will enable us to frame advertisements which will draw business, letters which will win customers, and to speak in that elegant and forceful way so effective in selling goods. When all advertisements are couched in very imperfect language, and all business letters are carelessly written, of course no one has an advantage over another, and a good knowledge and command of language would not be much of a recommendation to a business man who wants a good assistant. But when a few have come in and by their superior command of language gained a distinct advantage over rivals, then the power inherent in language comes into universal demand--the business standard is raised. There are many signs now that the business standard in the use of language is being distinctly raised. Already a stenographer who does not make errors commands a salary from 25 per cent. to 50 per cent. higher than the average, and is always in demand. Advertisement writers must have not only business instinct but language instinct, and knowledge of correct, as well as forceful, expression{.}
Granted, then, that we are all eager to better our knowledge of the English language, how shall we go about it?
There are literally thousands of published books devoted to the study and teaching of our language. In such a flood it would seem that we should have no difficulty in obtaining good guides for our study.
But what do we find? We find spelling-books filled with lists of words to be memorized; we find grammars filled with names and definitions of all the different forms which the language assumes; we find rhetorics filled with the names of every device ever employed to give effectiveness to language; we find books on literature filled with the names, dates of birth and death, and lists of works, of every writer any one ever heard of: and when we have learned all these names we are no better off than when we started. It is true that in many of these books we may find prefaces which say, "All other books err in clinging too closely to mere system, to names; but we will break away and give you the real thing." But they don't do it; they can't afford to be too radical, and so they merely modify in a few details the same old system, the system of names. Yet it is a great point gained when the necessity for a change is realized.
How, then, shall we go about our mastery of the English language?
Modern science has provided us a universal method by which we may study and master any subject. As applied to an art, this method has proved highly successful in the case of music. It has not been applied to language because there was a well fixed method of language study in existence long before modern science was even dreamed of, and that ancient method has held on with wonderful tenacity. The great fault with it is that it was invented to apply to languages entirely different from our own. Latin grammar and Greek grammar were mechanical systems of endings by which the relationships of words were indicated. Of course the relationship of words was at bottom logical, but the mechanical form was the chief thing to be learned. Our language depends wholly (or very nearly so) on arrangement of words, and the key is the logical relationship. A man who knows all the forms of the Latin or Greek language can write it with substantial accuracy; but the man who would master the English language must go deeper, he must master the logic of sentence structure or word relations. We must begin our study at just the opposite end from the Latin or Greek; but our teachers of language have balked at a complete reversal of method, the power of custom and time has been too strong, and in the matter of grammar we are still the slaves of the ancient world. As for spelling, the irregularities of our language seem to have driven us to one sole method, memorizing: and to memorize every word in a language is an appalling task. Our rhetoric we have inherited from the middle ages, from scholiasts, refiners, and theological logicians, a race of men who got their living by inventing distinctions and splitting hairs. The fact is, prose has had a very low place in the literature of the world until within a century; all that was worth saying was said in poetry, which the rhetoricians were forced to leave severely alone, or in oratory, from which all their rules were derived; and since written prose language became a universal possession through the printing press and the newspaper we have been too busy to invent a new rhetoric.
Now, language is just as much a natural growth as trees or rocks or human bodies, and it can have no more irregularities, even in the matter of spelling, than these have. Science would laugh at the notion of memorizing every individual form of rock. It seeks the fundamental laws, it classifies and groups, and even if the number of classes or groups is large, still they have a limit and can be mastered. Here we have a solution of the spelling problem. In grammar we find seven fundamental logical relationships, and when we have mastered these and their chief modifications and combinations, we have the essence of grammar as truly as if we knew the name for every possible combination which our seven fundamental relationships might have. Since rhetoric is the art of appealing to the emotions and intelligence of our hearers, we need to know, not the names of all the different artifices which may be employed, but the nature and laws of emotion and intelligence as they may be reached through language; for if we know what we are hitting at, a little practice will enable us to hit accurately; whereas if we knew the name of every kind of blow, and yet were ignorant of the thing we were hitting at, namely the intelligence and emotion of our fellow man, we would be forever striking into the air,---striking cleverly perhaps, but ineffectively.
Having got our bearings, we find before us a purely practical problem, that of leading the student through the maze of a new science and teaching him the skill of an old art, exemplified in a long line of masters.
By way of preface we may say that the mastery of the English language (or any language) is almost the task of a lifetime. A few easy lessons will have no effect. We must form a habit of language study that will grow upon us as we grow older, and little by little, but never by leaps, shall we mount up to the full expression of all that is in us.
WORD-STUDY
INTRODUCTION
THE STUDY OF SPELLING.
The mastery of English spelling is a serious under-taking. In the first place, we must actually memorize from one to three thousand words which are spelled in more or less irregular ways. The best that can be done with these words is to classify them as much as possible and suggest methods of association which will aid the memory. But after all, the drudgery of memorizing must be gone through with.
Again, those words called homonyms, which are pronounced alike but spelled differently, can be studied only in connection with their meaning, since the meaning and grammatical use in the sentence is our only key to their form. So we have to go considerably beyond the mere mechanical association of letters.
Besides the two or three thousand common irregular words, the dictionary contains something over two hundred thousand other words. Of course no one of us can possibly have occasion to use all of those words; but at the same time, every one of us may sooner or later have occasion to use any one of them. As we cannot tell before hand what ones we shall need, we should be prepared to write any or all of them upon occasion. Of course we may refer to the dictionary; but this is not always, or indeed very often, possible. It would obviously be of immense advantage to us if we could find a key to the spelling of these numerous but infrequently used words.
The first duty of the instructor in spelling should be to provide such a key. We would suppose, off-hand, that the three hundred thousand school-teachers in the United States would do this immediately and without suggestion--certainly that the writers of school-books would. But many things have stood in the way. It is only within a few years, comparatively speaking, that our language has become at all fixed in its spelling. Noah Webster did a great deal to establish principles, and bring the spelling of as many words as possible to conform with these principles and with such analogies as seemed fairly well established. But other dictionary-makers have set up their ideas against his, and we have a conflict of authorities. If for any reason one finds himself spelling a word differently from the world about him, he begins to say, "Well, that is the spelling given in Worcester, or the Century, or the Standard, or the new Oxford." So the word "authority" looms big on the horizon; and we think so much about authority, and about different authorities, that we forget to look for principles, as Mr. Webster would have us do.
Another reason for neglecting rules and principles is that the lists of exceptions are often so formidable that we get discouraged and exclaim, "If nine tenths of the words I use every day are exceptions to the rules, what is the use of the rules anyway!" Well, the words which constitute that other tenth will aggregate in actual numbers far more than the common words which form the chief part of everyday speech, and as they are selected at random from a vastly larger number, the only possible way to master them is by acquiring principles, consciously or unconsciously, which will serve as a key to them. Some people have the faculty of unconsciously formulating principles from their everyday observations, but it is a slow process, and many never acquire it unless it is taught them.
The spelling problem is not to learn how to spell nine tenths of our words correctly. Nearly all of us can and do accomplish that. The good speller must spell nine hundred and ninety-nine one thousandths of his word correctly, which is quite another matter. Some of us go even one figure higher.
Our first task is clearly to commit the common irregular words to memory. How may we do that most easily? It is a huge task at best, but every pound of life energy which we can save in doing it is so much gained for higher efforts. We should strive to economize effort in this just as the manufacturer tries to economize in the cost of making his goods.
In this particular matter, it seems to the present writer that makers of modern spelling-books have committed a great blunder in mixing indiscriminately regular words with irregular, and common words with uncommon. Clearly we should memorize first the words we use most often, and then take up those which we use less frequently. But the superintendent of the Evanston schools has reported that out of one hundred first-reader words which he gave to his grammar classes as a spelling test, some were misspelled by all but sixteen per cent{.} of the pupils. And yet these same pupils were studying busily away on _categories, concatenation,_ and _amphibious_. The spelling-book makers feel that they must put hard words into their spellers. Their books are little more than lists of words, and any one can make lists of common, easy words. A spelling-book filled with common easy words would not seem to be worth the price paid for it. Pupils and teachers must get their money's worth, even if they never learn to spell. Of course the teachers are expected to furnish drills themselves on the common, easy words; but unfortunately they take their cue from the spelling-book, each day merely assigning to the class the next page. They haven't time to select, and no one could consistently expect them to do otherwise than as they do do.
To meet this difficulty, the author of this book has prepared a version of the story of Robinson Crusoe which contains a large proportion of the common words which offer difficulty in spelling. Unluckily it is not easy to produce classic English when one is writing under the necessity of using a vocabulary previously selected. However, if we concentrate our attention on the word-forms, we are not likely to be much injured by the ungraceful sentence-forms. This story is not long, but it should be dictated to every school class, beginning in the fourth grade, until _every_ pupil can spell _every_ word correctly. A high percentage is not enough, as in the case of some other studies. Any pupil who misses a single word in any exercise should be marked zero.
But even if one can spell correctly every word in this story, he may still not be a good speller, for there are thousands of other words to be spelled, many of which are not and never will be found in any spelling-book. The chief object of a course of study in spelling is to acquire two habits, the habit of observing articulate sounds, and the habit of observing word-forms in reading.
1. Train the Ear. Until the habit of observing articulate sounds carefully has been acquired, the niceties of pronunciation are beyond the student's reach, and equally the niceties of spelling are beyond his reach, too. In ordinary speaking, many vowels and even some consonants are slurred and obscured. If the ear is not trained to exactness, this habit of slurring introduces many inaccuracies. Even in careful speaking, many obscure sounds are so nearly alike that only a finely trained ear can detect any difference. Who of us notices any difference between _er_ in _pardoner_ and _or_ in _honor_? Careful speakers do not pass over the latter syllable quite so hastily as over the former, but only the most finely trained ear will detect any difference even in the pronunciation of the most finely trained voice.
In the lower grades in the schools the ear may be trained by giving separate utterance to each sound in a given word, as f-r-e-n-d, _friend,_ allowing each letter only its true value in the word. Still it may also be obtained by requiring careful and distinct pronunciation in reading, not, however, to the extent of exaggerating the value of obscure syllables, or painfully accentuating syllables naturally obscure.
Adults (but seldom children) may train the ear by reading poetry aloud, always guarding against the sing-song style, but trying to harmonize nicely the sense and the rhythm. A trained ear is absolutely necessary to reading poetry well, and the constant reading aloud of poetry cannot but afford an admirable exercise.
For children, the use of diacritical marks has little or no value, until the necessity arises for consulting the dictionary for pronunciation. They are but a mechanical system, and the system we commonly use is so devoid of permanence in its character that every dictionary has a different system. The one most common in the schools is that introduced by Webster; but if we would consult the Standard or the Century or the Oxford, we must learn our system all over again. To the child, any system is a clog and a hindrance, and quite useless in teaching him phonetic values, wherein the voice of the teacher is the true medium.
For older students, however, especially students at home, where no teacher is available, phonetic writing by means of diacritical marks has great value.* It is the only practicable way of representing the sounds of the voice on paper. When the student writes phonetically he is obliged to observe closely his own voice and the voices of others in ordinary speech, and so his ear is trained. It also takes the place of the voice for dictation in spelling tests by mail or through the medium of books.
*There should be no more marks than there are sounds. When two vowels have the same sound one should be written as a substitute for the other, as we have done in this book.
2. Train the Eye. No doubt the most effective way of learning spelling is to train the eye carefully to observe the forms of the words we read in newspapers and in books. If this habit is formed, and the habit of general reading accompanies it, it is sufficient to make a nearly perfect speller. The great question is, how to acquire it.
Of course in order to read we are obliged to observe the forms of words in a general way, and if this were all that is needed, we should all be good spellers if we were able to read fluently. But it is not all. The observation of the general form of a word is not the observation that teaches spelling. We must have the habit of observing every letter in every word, and this we are not likely to have unless we give special attention to acquiring it.
The "visualization" method of teaching spelling now in use in the schools is along the line of training the eye to observe every letter in a word. It is good so far as it goes; but it does not go very far. The reason is that there is a limit to the powers of the memory, especially in the observation of arbitrary combinations of letters. What habits of visualization would enable the ordinary person to glance at such a combination as the following and write it ten minutes afterward with no aid but the single glance: _hwgufhtbizwskoplmne?_ It would require some minutes' study to memorize such a combination, because there is nothing to aid us but the sheer succession of forms. The memory works by association. We build up a vast structure of knowledge, and each new fact or form must be as securely attached to this as the new wing of a building; and the more points at which attachment can be formed the more easily is the addition made.
The Mastery of Irregular Words.
Here, then, we have the real reason for a long study of principles, analogies, and classifications. They help us to remember. If I come to the word _colonnade_ in reading, I observe at once that the double _n_ is an irregularity. It catches my eye immediately. "Ah!" I reflect almost in the fraction of a second as I read in continuous flow, "here is another of those exceptions." Building on what I already know perfectly well, I master this word with the very slightest effort. If we can build up a system which will serve the memory by way of association, so that the slight effort that can be given in ordinary reading will serve to fix a word more or less fully, we can soon acquire a marvellous power in the accurate spelling of words.
Again: In a spelling-book before me I see lists of words ending in _ise, ize,_ and _yse,_ all mixed together with no distinction. The arrangement suggests memorizing every word in the language ending with either of these terminations, and until we have memorized any particular word we have no means of knowing what the termination is. If, however, we are taught that _ize_ is the common ending, that _ise_ is the ending of only thirty-one words, and _yse_ of only three or four, we reduce our task enormously and aid the memory in acquiring the few exceptions. When we come to _franchise_ in reading we reflect rapidly, "Another of those verbs in _ise_!" or to _paralyse,_ "One of those very few verbs in _yse_!" We give no thought whatever to all the verbs ending in _ize,_ and so save so much energy for other acquirements.
If we can say, "This is a violation of such and such a rule," or "This is a strange irregularity," or "This belongs to the class of words which substitutes _ea_ for the long sound of _e,_ or for the short sound of _e_."
We have an association of the unknown with the known that is the most powerful possible aid to the memory. The system may fail in and of itself, but it more than serves its purpose thus indirectly in aiding the memory.
We have not spoken of the association of word forms with sounds, the grouping of the letters of words into syllables, and the aid that a careful pronunciation gives the memory by way of association; for while this is the most powerful aid of all, it does not need explanation.
The Mastery of Regular Words.
We have spoken of the mastery of irregular words, and in the last paragraph but one we have referred to the aid which general principles give the memory by way of association in acquiring the exceptions to the rules. We will now consider the great class of words formed according to fixed principles.
Of course these laws and rules are little more than a string of analogies which we observe in our study of the language. The language was not and never will be built to fit these rules. The usage of the people is the only authority. Even clear logic goes down before usage. Languages grow like mushrooms, or lilies, or bears, or human bodies. Like these they have occult and profound laws which we can never hope to penetrate,---which are known only to the creator of all things existent. But as in botany and zoology and physiology we may observe and classify our observations, so we may observe a language, classify our observations, and create an empirical science of word-formation. Possibly in time it will become a science something more than empirical.
The laws we are able at this time to state with much definiteness are few (doubling consonants, dropping silent e's, changing y's to i's, accenting the penultimate and antepenultimate syllables, lengthening and shortening vowels). In addition we may classify exceptions, for the sole purpose of aiding the memory.
Ignorance of these principles and classifications, and knowledge of the causes and sources of the irregularities, should be pronounced criminal in a teacher; and failure to teach them, more than criminal in a spelling-book. It is true that most spelling-books do give them in one form or another, but invariably without due emphasis or special drill, a lack which renders them worthless. Pupils and students should be drilled upon them till they are as familiar as the multiplication table.
We know how most persons stumble over the pronunciation of names in the Bible and in classic authors. They are equally nonplussed when called upon to write words with which they are no more familiar. They cannot even pronounce simple English names like _Cody,_ which they call "Coddy," in analogy with _body,_ because they do not know that in a word of two syllables a single vowel followed by a single consonant is regularly long when accented. At the same time they will spell the word in all kinds of queer ways, which are in analogy only with exceptions, not with regular formations. Unless a person knows what the regular principles are, he cannot know how a word should regularly be spelled. A strange word is spelled quite regularly nine times out of ten, and if one does not know exactly how to spell a word, it is much more to his credit to spell it in a regular way than in an irregular way.
The truth is, the only possible key we can have to those thousands of strange words and proper names which we meet only once or twice in a lifetime, is the system of principles formulated by philologists, if for no other reason, we should master it that we may come as near as possible to spelling proper names correctly.
CHAPTER I.
LETTERS AND SOUNDS.
We must begin our study of the English language with the elementary sounds and the letters which represent them.
Name the first letter of the alphabet---_a_. The mouth is open and the sound may be prolonged indefinitely. It is a full, clear sound, an unobstructed vibration of the vocal chords.
Now name the second letter of the alphabet---_b_. You say _bee_ or _buh_. You cannot prolong the sound. In order to give the real sound of _b_ you have to associate it with some other sound, as that of _e_ or _u_. In other words, _b_ is in the nature of an obstruction of sound, or a modification of sound, rather than a simple elementary sound in itself. There is indeed a slight sound in the throat, but it is a closed sound and cannot be prolonged. In the case of _p,_ which is similar to _b,_ there is no sound from the throat.
So we see that there are two classes of sounds (represented by two classes of letters), those which are full and open tones from the vocal chords, pronounced with the mouth open, and capable of being prolonged indefinitely; and those which are in the nature of modifications of these open sounds, pronounced with or without the help of the voice, and incapable of being prolonged. The first class of sounds is called vowel sounds, the second, consonant sounds. Of the twenty-six letters of the alphabet, _a, e, i, o,_ and _u_ (sometimes _y_ and _w_) represent vowel sounds and are called vowels; and the remainder represent consonant sounds, and are called consonants.
A syllable is an elementary sound, or a combination of elementary sounds, which can be given easy and distinct utterance at one effort. Any vowel may form a syllable by itself, but as we have seen that a consonant must be united with a vowel for its perfect utterance, it follows that every syllable must contain a vowel sound, even if it also contains consonant sounds. With that vowel sound one or more consonants may be united; but the ways in which consonants may combine with a vowel to form a syllable are limited. In general we may place any consonant before and any consonant after the vowel in the same syllable: but _y_ for instance, can be given a consonant sound only at the beginning of a syllable, as in _yet_; at the end of a syllable _y_ becomes a vowel sound, as in _they_ or _only_. In the syllable _twelfths_ we find seven consonant sounds; but if these same letters were arranged in almost any other way they could not be pronounced as one syllable---as for instance _wtelthfs_.
A word consists of one or more syllables to which some definite meaning is attached.
The difficulties of spelling and pronunciation arise largely from the fact that in English twenty-six letters must do duty for some forty-two sounds, and even then several of the letters are unnecessary, as for instance _c,_ which has either the sound of _s_ or of _k_; _x,_ which has the sound either of _ks, gs,_ or _z_; _q,_ which in the combination _qu_ has the sound of _kw_. All the vowels represent from two to seven sounds each, and some of the consonants interchange with each other.
The Sounds of the Vowels.---(1) Each of the vowels has what is called a long sound and a short sound. It is important that these two sets of sounds be fixed clearly in the mind, as several necessary rules of spelling depend upon them. In studying the following table, note that the long sound is marked by a s t r a i g h t l i n e o v{colon : aft}er the letter, and the short sound by a c u{g}r{a}ve {accent mark ` }.
_Long Short_ a:te a`t ga:ve ma`n na:me ba`g
the:se pe`t m:e te`n (com)ple:te bre`d
ki:te si`t ri:ce mi`ll li:me ri`p
no:te no`t ro:de ro`d so:le To`m
cu:re bu`t cu:te ru`n (a)bu:se cru`st
scy:the (like)ly`
If we observe the foregoing list of words we shall see that each of the words containing a long vowel followed by a single consonant sound ends in silent _e_. After the short vowels there is no silent _e_. In each case in which we have the silent _e_ there is a single long vowel followed by a single consonant, or two consonants combining to form a single sound, as _th_ in _scythe_. Such words as _roll, toll,_ etc., ending in double _l_ have no silent _e_ though the vowel is long; and such words as _great, meet, pail,_ etc., in which two vowels combine with the sound of one, take no silent _e_ at the end. We shall consider these exceptions more fully later; but a _single long_ vowel followed by a _single_ consonant _always_ takes silent _e_ at the end. As carefully stated in this way, the rule has no exceptions. The reverse, however, is not always true, for a few words containing a short vowel followed by a single consonant do take silent _e_; but there are very few of them. The principal are _have, give, {_(I)_ }live, love, shove, dove, above;_ also _none, some, come,_ and some words in three or more syllables, such as _domicile_.
2. Beside the long and short sounds of the vowels there are several other vowel sounds.
A has two other distinct sounds:
Ş broad, like _aw,_ as in _all, talk,_ etc.
ä Italian, like _ah,_ as in _far, father,_ etc.
Double o has two sounds different from long or short _o_ alone:
long şo: as in _room, soon, mood,_ etc.
short şo`, as in _good, took, wood,_ etc.
Ow has a sound of its own, as in _how, crowd, allow,_ etc.; and _ou_ sometimes has the same sound, as in _loud, rout, bough,_ etc.
(_Ow_ and _ou_ are also sometimes sounded like long _o,_ as in _own, crow, pour,_ etc., and sometimes have still other sounds, as _ou_ in _bought_).
Oi and oy have a distinct sound of their own, as in _oil, toil, oyster, void, boy, employ,_ etc.
_Ow_ and _oi_ are called proper diphthongs, as the two vowels combine to produce a sound different from either, while such combinations as _ei, ea, ai,_ etc., are called improper diphthongs (or digraphs), because they have the sound of one or other of the simple vowels.
3. In the preceding paragraphs we have given all the distinct vowel sounds of the language, though many of them are slightly modified in certain combinations. But in many cases one vowel will be given the sound of another vowel, and two or more vowels will combine with a variety of sounds. These irregularities occur chiefly in a few hundred common words, and cause the main difficulties of spelling the English language. The following are the leading substitutes:
ew with the sound of _u_ long, as in _few, chew,_ etc. (perhaps this may be considered a proper diphthong);
e (_ę, é_) with the sound of _a_ long, as in _fęte, abbé,_ and all foreign words written with an accent, especially French words;
i with the sound of _e_ long, as in _machine,_ and nearly all French and other foreign words;
o has the sound of double _o_ long in _tomb, womb, prove, move,_ etc., and of double _o_ short in _wolf, women,_ etc.;
o also has the sound of _u_ short in _above, love, some, done,_ etc.;
u has the sound of double _o_ long after _r,_ as in _rude, rule_;
it also has the sound of double _o_ short in _put, pull, bull, sure,_ etc.;
ea has the sound of _a_ long, as in _great_; of _e_ long, as in _heat_; of _e_ short, as in _head_; of _a_ Italian (ah), as in _heart, hearth,_ etc.;
ei has the sound of _e_ long, as in _receive_; of _a_ long, as in _freight, weight_; sometimes of _i_ long, as in _either_ and _neither,_ pronounced with either the sound of _e_ long or _i_ long, the latter being the English usage;
ie has the sound of _i_ long, as in _lie,_ and of _e_ long, as in _belief,_ and of _i_ short, as in _sieve_;
ai has the sound of _a_ long, as in _laid, bail, train,_ etc., and of _a_ short, as in _plaid;_
ay has the sound of _a_ long, as in _play, betray, say,_ etc.;
oa has the sound of _o_ long, as in _moan, foam, coarse,_ etc.
There are also many peculiar and occasional substitutions of sounds as in _any_ and _many_ (a as e), _women_ (o as i), _busy_ (u as i), _said_ (ai as e), _people_ (eo as e:), _build_ (u as i), _gauge_ (au as a:), _what_ (a as o), etc.
When any of these combinations are to be pronounced as separate vowels, in two syllables, two dots should be placed over the second, as in _naďve_.
4. The chief modifications of the elementary sounds are the following:
before _r_ each of the vowels _e, i, o, u,_ and _y_ has almost the same sound (marked like the Spanish ń) as in _her, birth, honor, burr,_ and _myrtle; o_ before _r_ sometimes has the sound of _aw,_ as in _or, for,_ etc.;
in unaccented syllables, each of the long vowels has a slightly shortened sound, as in f_a_tality, n_e_gotiate, int_o_nation, ref_u_tation, indicated by a dot above the sign for the long sound; (in a few words, such as d_i_gress, the sound is not shortened, however);
long _a_ (â) is slightly modified in such words as _care, fare, bare,_ etc., while _e_ has the same sound in words like _there, their,_ and _where_; (New Englan{d} g people give _a_ the short sound in such words as _care,_ etc., and pronounce _there_ and _where_ with the short sound of _a,_ while _their_ is pronounced with the short sound of _e_: this is not the best usage, however);
in _pass, class, command, laugh,_ etc., we have a sound of a between Italian _a_ and short _a_ (indicated by a single dot over the _a_), though most Americans pronounce it as short, and most English give the Italian sound: the correct pronunciation is between these two.
The Sounds of the Consonants. We have already seen that there are two classes of consonant sounds, those which have a voice sound, as _b,_ called _sonant,_ and those which are mere breath sounds, like _p,_ called _surds_ or aspirates. The chief difference between _b_ and _p_ is that one has the voice sound and the other has not. Most of the other consonants also stand in pairs. We may say that the sonant consonant and its corresponding surd are the hard and soft forms of the same sound. The following table contains also simple consonant sounds represented by two letters: _Sonant Surd_ b p d t v f g (hard) k j ch z s th (in _thine_) th (in _thin_) zh (or z as in _azure_) sh w y l m n r h
If we go down this list from the top to the bottom, we see that _b_ is the most closed sound, while _h_ is the most slight and open, and the others are graded in between (though not precisely as arranged above). These distinctions are important, because in making combinations of consonants in the same syllable or in successive syllables we cannot pass abruptly from a closed sound to an open sound, or the reverse, nor from a surd sound to a sonant, or the reverse. _L, m, n,_ and _r_ are called liquids, and easily combine with other consonants; and so do the sibilants (_s, z,_ etc.). In the growth of the language, many changes have been made in letters to secure harmony of sound (as changing _b_ to _p_ in _sub-port---support,_ and _s,_ to _f_ in _differ_---from _dis_ and _fero_). Some combinations are not possible of pronunciation, others are not natural or easy; and hence the alterations. The student of the language must know how words are built; and then when he comes to a strange word he can reconstruct it for himself. While the short, common words may be irregular, the long, strange words are almost always formed quite regularly.
Most of the sonants have but one sound, and none of them has more than three sounds. The most important variations are as follows:
C and G have each a soft sound and a hard sound. The soft sound of _c_ is the same as _s,_ and the hard sound the same as _k_. The soft sound of _g_ is the same as _j,_ and the hard sound is the true sound of _g_ as heard in _gone, bug, struggle_.
Important Rule. _C_ and _G_ are soft before _e, i,_ and _y,_ and hard before all the other vowels, before all the other consonants, and at the end of words.
The chief exceptions to this rule are a few common words in which _g_ is hard before _e_ or _i_. They include---_give, get, gill, gimlet, girl, gibberish, gelding, gerrymander, gewgaw, geyser, giddy, gibbon, gift, gig, giggle, gild, gimp, gingham, gird, girt, girth, eager,_ and _begin_. G is soft before a consonant in _judgment{,} lodgment, acknowledgment,_ etc. Also in a few words from foreign languages _c_ is soft before other vowels, though in such cases it should always be written with a cedilla (ç).
N when marked ń in words from the Spanish language is pronounced _n-y_ (cańon like _canyon_).
Ng has a peculiar nasal sound of its own, as heard in the syllable _ing_.
N alone also has the sound of _ng_ sometimes before _g_ and _k,_ as in _angle, ankle, single,_ etc. (pronounced _ang-gle, ang-kle, sing-gle_).
Ph has the sound of _f,_ as in prophet.
Th has two sounds, a hard sound as in _the, than, bathe, scythe,_ etc., and a soft sound as in _thin, kith, bath, Smith,_ etc. Contrast _breathe_ and _breath, lath_ and _lathe_; and _bath_ and _baths, lath_ and _laths,_ etc.
S has two sounds, one its own sound, as in _sin, kiss, fist_ (the same as _c_ in _lace, rice,_ etc.), and the sound of _z,_ as in _rise_ (contrast with _rice_), _is, baths, men's,_ etc.
X has two common sounds, one that of _ks_ as in _box, six,_ etc., and the other the sound of _gs,_ as in _exact, exaggerate_ (by the way, the first _g_ in this word is silent). At the beginning of a word _x_ has the sound of _z_ as in _Xerxes_.
Ch has three sounds, as heard first in _child,_ second in _machine,_ and third in _character_. The first is peculiar to itself, the second is that of _sh,_ and the third that of _k_.
The sound of _sh_ is variously represented:
by _sh{,}_ as in _share, shift, shirt,_ etc.
by _ti,_ as in _condition, mention, sanction,_ etc.
by _si,_ as in _tension, suspension, extension,_ etc.
by _ci,_ as in _suspicion_. (Also, _crucifixion_.)
The kindred sound of _zh_ is represented by _z_ as in _azure,_ and _s_ as in _pleasure,_ and by some combinations.
Y is always a consonant at the beginning of a word when followed by a vowel, as in _yet, year, yell,_ etc.; but if followed by a consonant it is a vowel, as in _Ypsilanti_. At the end of a word it is {al}ways a vowel, as in all words ending in the syllable _ly_.
Exercises. It is very important that the student should master the sounds of the language and the symbols for them, or the diacritical marks, for several reasons:
First, because it is impossible to find out the true pronunciation of a word from the dictionary unless one clearly understands the meaning of the principal marks;
Second, because one of the essentials in accurate pronunciation and good spelling is the habit of analyzing the sounds which compose words, and training the ear to detect slight variations;
Third, because a thorough knowledge of the sounds and their natural symbols is the first step toward a study of the principles governing word formation, or spelling and pronunciation.
For purposes of instruction through correspondence or by means of a textbook, the diacritical marks representing distinct sounds of the language afford a substitute for the voice in dictation and similar exercises, and hence such work requires a mastery of what might at first sight seem a purely mechanical and useless system.
One of the best exercises for the mastery of this system is to open the unabridged dictionary at any point and copy out lists of words, writing the words as they ordinarily appear in one column, and in an adjoining column the phonetic form of the word. When the list is complete, cover one column and reproduce the other from an application of the principles that have been learned. After a few days, reproduce the phonetic forms from the words as ordinarily written, and again the ordinary word from the phonetic form. Avoid memorizing as much as possible, but work solely by the application of principles. Never write down a phonetic form without fully understanding its meaning in every detail. A key to the various marks will be found at the bottom of every page of the dictionary, and the student should refer to this frequently. In the front part of the dictionary there will also be found an explanation of all possible sounds that any letter may have; and every sound that any letter may have may be indicated by a peculiar mark, so that since several letters may represent the same sound there are a variety of symbols for the same sound. For the purposes of this book it has seemed best to offer only one symbol for each sound, and that symbol the one most frequently used. For that reason the following example will not correspond precisely with the forms given in the dictionary, but a study of the differences will afford a valuable exercise.
Illustration.*
*In this exercise, vowels before r marked in webster with the double curve used over the Spanish n, are left unmarked. Double o with the short sound is also left unmarked.
The first place that I can well remember was a large, The` first pla:s tha`t I ka`n we`l re:me`mber wo`z a: lärj,
pleasant meadow with a pond of clear water in it. Some ple`s'nt me`do: with a: po`nd o`v kle:r wo`ter in it. Su`m
shady trees leaned over it, and rushes and water-lilies sha:di` tre:z le:nd o:ver i`t, a`nd ru`she:z a`nd wo`ter-li`li`z
grew at the deep end. Over the hedge on one side we looked gru: a`t the` de:p e`nd. Over the: he`j o`n wu`n si:d we: lookt
into a plowed field, and on the other we looked over a intşo: a: plowd fe:ld a`nd o`n the: o`ther we: lookt o:ver a:
gate at our master's house, which stood by the roadside. ga:t a`t owr ma`ster'z hows, hwich stood bi: the: ro:dsi:d.
At the top of the meadow was a grove of fir-trees, A`t the: to`p o`v the: me`do: wo`z a: gro:v o`v fir-tre:z,
and at the bottom a running brook overhung by a steep bank. and a`t the: bo`t'm a ru`ning brook o:verhu`ng bi: a: ste:p ba`nk.
Whilst I was young I lived upon my mother's milk, as I could Hwi:lst I wo`z yu`ng I livd u`po`n mi: mu`ther'z milk, a`z I kood
not eat grass. In the daytime I ran by her side, and at night no`t e:t gra`s. In the: da:ti:m I ra`n bi: her si:d, a`nd a`t ni:t
I lay down close by her. When it was hot we used to stand I la: down klo:s bi: her. Hwe`n it wo`z ho`t we: u:zd tşo: sta`nd
by the pond in the shade of the trees, and when it was cold bi: the: po`nd in the: sha:d o`v the: tre:z a`nd hwe`n it wo`z ko:ld
we had a nice, warm shed near the grove. we: ha`d a: ni:s, wawrm she`d ne:r the: gro:v.
Note. In Webster's dictionary letters which are unmarked have an obscure sound often not unlike uh, or are silent, and letters printed in italics are nearly elided, so very slight is the sound they have if it can be said to exist at all. In the illustration above, all very obscure sounds have been replaced by the apostrophe, while no distinction has been made between short vowels in accented and unaccented syllables.
Studies from the Dictionary.
The following are taken from Webster's Dictionary:
Ab-do`m'-i-nou`s: The _a_ in _ab_ is only a little shorter than _a_ in _at,_ and the _i_ is short being unaccented, while the _o_ is silent, the syllable having the sound nus as indicated by the mark over the _u_.
Le`ss'_e_n, (le`s'n), le`s's_o_n, (le`s'sn), le`ss'er, le`s'sor: Each of these words has two distinct syllables, though there is no recognizable vowel sound in the last syllables of the first two. This eliding of the vowel is shown by printing the _e_ and the _o_ of the final syllables in italics. In the last two words the vowels of the final syllables are not marked, but have nearly the sound they would have if marked in the usual way for _e_ and _o_ before _r_. As the syllables are not accented the vowel sound is slightly obscured. Or in _lessor_ has the sound of the word _or_ (nearly), not the sound of _or_ in _honor,_ which will be found re-spelled (o`n'ur). It will be noted that the double s is divided in two of the words and not in the other two. In _lesser_ and _lessen_ all possible stress is placed on the first syllables, since the terminations have the least possible value in speaking; but in _lesson_ and _lessor_ we put a little more stress on the final syllables, due to the greater dignity of the letter _o,_ and this draws over a part of the s sound.
Hon'-ey-co:mb (hu`n'y-ko:m): The heavy{ second} hyphen indicates that this is a compound word and the hyphen must always be written. The hyphens printed lightly in the dictionary merely serve to separate the syllables and show how a word may be divided at the end of a line. The student will also note that the _o_ in _-comb_ has its full long value instead of being slighted. This slight added stress on the _o_ is the way we have in speaking of indicating that _-comb_ was once a word by itself, with an accent of its own.
Exercise. Select other words from the dictionary, and analyse as we have done above, giving some explanation for every peculiarity found in the printing and marks. Continue this until there is no doubt or hesitation in regard to the meaning of any mark that may be found.
CHAPTER II.
WORD-BUILDING.
English speaking peoples have been inclined to exaggerate the irregularities of the English word-formation. The fact is, only a small number of common words and roots are irregular in formation, while fully nine tenths of all the words in the language are formed according to regular principles, or are regularly derived from the small number of irregular words. We use the irregular words so much more frequently that they do indeed constitute the greater part of our speech, but it is very necessary that we should master the regular principles of word-building, since they give us a key to the less frequently used, but far more numerous, class which fills the dictionary, teaching us both the spelling of words of which we know the sound, and the pronunciation of words which we meet for the first time in reading.
Accent. In English, accent is an essential part of every word. It is something of an art to learn to throw it on to any syllable we choose, for unless we are able to do this we cannot get the true pronunciation of a word from the dictionary and we are helpless when we are called on to pronounce a word we have never heard.
Perhaps the best way to learn the art of throwing accent is by comparing words in which we are in the habit of shifting the accent to one syllable or another according to the meaning, as for instance the following:
1. Accent.
a. What _ac'cent_ has this word?
b. With what _accent'uation_ do you _accent'_ this word?
2. Concert.
a. Did you go to the _con'cert_ last night?
b. By _concert'ed_ action we can do anything.
3. Contrast.
{a} b. What a _con'trast_ between the rich man and the poor man!
b. _Contrast'_ good with bad, black with white, greatness with littleness.
4. Permit.
a. I have a building_-per'mit_.
b. My mother will not _permit'_ me to go.
5. Present.
a. He received a beautiful Christmas _pres'ent_.
b. She was _present'ed_ at court.
6. Prefix.
a. Sub is a common _pre'fix_.
b. _Prefix'_ sub to port and you get support.
7. Compound.
a. He can _compound'_ medicine like a druggist.
b. Nitroglycerine is a dangerous _com'pound_.
As a further illustration, read the following stanza of poetry, especially accenting the syllables as marked:
Tell' me not' in mourn'ful num'bers, "Life' is but' an emp'ty dream'!" For' the soul' is dead' that slum'bers, And' things are' not what' they seem'.
This is called scanning, and all verse may be scanned in the same way. It is an excellent drill in learning the art of throwing the stress of the voice on any syllable that may be desired.
Two Laws of Word-Formation.
We are now prepared to consider the two great laws governing word-formation. These are:
1. Law: All vowels in combination with consonants are naturally short unless the long sound is given by combination with other vowels, by accent, or by position in the syllable with reference to consonants.
2. Law: Words derived from other words by the addition of prefixes or suffixes always retain the original form as far as possible.
1. We are likely to suppose that the natural or original sound of a vowel is the long sound, because that is the sound we give it when naming it in the alphabet. If we will examine a number of words, however, we shall soon see that in combination with consonants all vowels have a tendency to a short or obscure pronunciation. The sounds of the consonants are naturally obscure, and they draw the vowels to a similar obscurity.
Since such is the case, when a vowel is given its long sound there is always a special reason for it. In the simple words _not, pin, her, rip, rid, cut, met,_ we have the short sounds of the vowels; but if we desire the long sounds we must add a silent _e,_ which is not pronounced as _e,_ but has its sound value in the greater stress put upon the vowel with which it is connected. By adding silent _e_ to the above words we have _note, pine, here, ripe, ride, mete_. In each of these cases the _e_ follows the consonant, though really combining with the vowel before the consonant; but if we place the additional _e_ just after the first _e_ in _met_ we have _meet,_ which is a word even more common than _mete. E_ is the only vowel that may be placed after the consonant and still combine with the vowel before it {while being silent}; but nearly all the other vowels may be placed beside the vowel that would otherwise be short in order to make it long, and sometimes this added vowel is placed before as well as after the vowel to be lengthened. Thus we have _boat, bait, beat, field, chief,_ etc. There are a very, very few irregular words in which the vowel sound has been kept short in spite of the added vowel, as for instance, _head, sieve,_ etc. It appears that with certain consonants the long sound is especially difficult, and so in the case of very common words the wear of common speech has shortened the vowels in spite of original efforts to strengthen them. This is peculiarly true of the consonant _v,_ and the combination _th,_ and less so of _s_ and _z_. So in {(I)}_live, have, give, love, shove, move,_ etc., the vowel sound is more or less obscured even in spite of the silent _e,_ though in the less common words _alive, behave,_ etc., the long sound strengthened by accent has not been lost. So as a rule two silent vowels are now used to make the vowel before the _v_ long, as in _leave, believe, receive, beeves, weave,_ etc. In the single word _sieve_ the vowel remains short in spite of two silent vowels added to strengthen it. Two vowels are also sometimes required to strengthen a long vowel before _th,_ as in _breathe,_ though when the vowel itself is a strong one, as _a_ in _bathe,_ the second vowel is not required, and _o_ in _both_ is so easily increased in sound that the two consonants alone are sufficient. It will be seen, therefore, that much depends on the quality of the vowel. _A_ and _o_ are the strongest vowels, _i_ the weakest (which accounts for sieve). After _s_ and _z_ we must also have a silent _e_ in addition to the silent vowel with which the sounded vowel is combined, as we may see in _cheese, increase, freeze,_ etc. The added vowel in combination with the long vowel is not always needed, however, as we may see in contrasting _raise_ and _rise_.
Not only vowels but consonants may serve to lengthen vowel sounds, as we see in _right, night, bright,_ and in _scold, roll,_ etc. Only _o_ is capable of being lengthened by two simple consonants such as we have in _scold_ and _roll_. In _calm_ and _ball,_ for instance, the _a_ has one of its extra values rather than its long sound. The _gh_ is of course a powerful combination. Once it was pronounced; but it became so difficult that we have learned to give its value by dwelling a little on the vowel sound.
Another powerful means of lengthening a vowel is accent. When a vowel receives the full force of the accent by coming at the end of an accented syllable it is almost invariably made long. We see this in monosyllables such as _he, no,_ etc. It is often necessary to strengthen by an additional silent vowel, however, as in _tie, sue, view,_ etc., and _a_ has a peculiarity in that when it comes at the end of a syllable alone it has the sound of _ah,_ or _a_ Italian, rather than that of _a_ long, and we have _pa, ma,_ etc., and for the long sound _y_ is added, as in _say, day, ray. I_ has a great disinclination to appear at the end of a word, and so is n usually changed to _y_ when such a position is necessary, or it takes silent _e_ as indicated above; while this service on the part of _y_ is reciprocated by _i_'s taking the place of _y_ inside a word, as may be illustrated by _city_ and _cities_.
When a vowel gets the _full force_ of the accent in a word of two or more syllables it is bound to be long, as for instance the first _a_ in _ma'di a_. Even the stress necessary to keep the vowel from running into the next syllable will make it long, though the sound is somewhat obscured, some other syllable receiving the chief accent, as the first _a_ in _ma gi'cian_. In this last word _i_ seems to have the full force of the accent, yet it is not long; and we note the same in such words as _condi'tion,_ etc. The fact is, however, that _i_ being a weak vowel easily runs into the consonant sound of the next syllable, and if we note the sounds as we pronounce _condition_ we shall see that the _sh_ sound represented by _ti_ blends with the _i_ and takes the force of the accent. We cannot separate the _ti_ or _ci_ from the following portion of the syllable, since if so separated they could not have their _sh_ value; but in pronunciation this separation is made in part and the _sh_ sound serves both for the syllable that precedes and the syllable that follows. In a word like _di men'sion_ we find the _i_ of the first syllable long even without the accent, since the accent on _men_ attaches the _m_ so closely to it that it cannot in any way relieve the _i_. So we see that in an accented syllable the consonant before a short vowel, as well as the consonant following it, receives part of the stress. This is especially noticeable in the word _ma gi'cian_ as compared with _mag'ic_. In magic the syllable _ic_ is in itself so complete that the _g_ is kept with the _a_ and takes the force of the accent, leaving the _a_ short. In _magician_ the _g_ is drawn away from the _a_ to help out the short _i_ followed by an _sh_ sound, and the _a_ is lengthened even to altering the form of the simple word. In the word _ma'gi an,_ again, we find _a_ long, the _g_ being needed to help out the _i_.
Since accent makes a vowel long if no consonant intervenes at the end of a syllable, and as a single consonant following such a vowel in a word of two syllables (though not in words of three or more) is likely to be drawn into the syllable following, a single consonant following a single short vowel must be doubled. If two or more consonants follow the vowel, as in _masking, standing, wilting,_ the vowel even in an accented syllable remains short. But in _pining_ with one _n_ following the _i_ in the accented syllable, we know that the vowel must be long, for if it were short the word would be written _pinning_.
Universal Rule: _Monosyllables_ in which, a single vowel is followed by a single consonant (except _v_ and _h_ never doubled) _double the final consonant_ when a single syllable beginning with a vowel is added, and _all words_ so ending double the final consonant on the addition of a syllable beginning with a vowel _if the syllable containing the single vowel_ followed by a single consonant _is to be accented_.
Thus we have _can---canning, run---running, fun---funny, flat---flattish_; and also _sin---sinned_ (for the _ed_ is counted a syllable though not pronounced as such nowadays); _preferred,_ but _preference,_ since the accent is thrown back from the syllable containing the single vowel followed by a single consonant in the word _preference,_ though not in _preferred_; and of course the vowel is not doubled in _murmured, wondered, covered,_ etc.
If, however, the accented syllable is followed by two or more syllables, the tendency of accent is to shorten the vowel. Thus we have _grammat'ical,_ etc., in which the short vowel in the accented syllable is followed by a single consonant not doubled. The word _na'tion_ (with a long a) becomes _na'tional_ (short _a_) when the addition of a syllable throws the accent on to the antepenult. The vowel _u_ is never shortened in this way, however, and we have _lu'bricate,_ not _lub'ricate_. We also find such words as _no'tional_ (long _o_). While accented syllables which are followed by two or more syllables seldom if ever double the single consonant, in pronunciation we often find the vowel long if the two syllables following contain short and weak vowels. Thus we have _pe'riod_ (long _e_), _ma'niac_ (long _a_), and _o'rient'al_ (long _o_).
In words of two syllables and other words in which the accent comes on the next to the last syllable, a short vowel in an accented syllable should logically always be followed by more than one consonant or a double consonant. We find the double consonant in such words as _summer, pretty, mammal,_ etc. Unfortunately, our second law, which requires all derived words to preserve the form of the original root, interferes with this principle very seriously in a large number of English words. The roots are often derived from languages in which this principle did not apply, or else these roots originally had very different sound values from those they have with us. So we have _body,_ with one _d,_ though we have _shoddy_ and _toddy_ regularly formed with two _d_'s, and we have _finish, exhibit,_ etc.; in _col'onnade_ the _n_ is doubled in a syllable that is not accented.
The chief exception to the general principle is the entire class of words ending in _ic,_ such as _colic, cynic, civic, antithetic, peripatetic,_ etc. If the root is long, however, it will remain long after the addition of the termination _ic,_ as _music_ (from _muse_), _basic_ (from _base_), etc.
But in the case of words which we form ourselves, we will find practically no exceptions to the rule that a short vowel in a syllable _next_ to the last _must_ be followed by a _double consonant_ when accented, while a short vowel in a syllable _before_ the next to the last is _not_ followed by a double consonant when the syllable is accented.
2. Our second law tells us that the original form of a word or of its root must be preserved as far as possible. Most of the words referred to above in which single consonants are doubled or not doubled in violation of the general rule are derived from the Latin, usually through the French, and if we were familiar with those languages we should have a key to their correct spelling. But even without such thorough knowledge, we may learn a few of the methods of derivation in those languages, especially the Latin, as well as the simpler methods in use in the English.
Certain changes in the derived words are always made, as, for instance, the dropping of the silent _e_ when a syllable beginning with a vowel is added.
Rule. Silent _e_ at the end of a word is dropped whenever a syllable beginning with a vowel is added.
This rule is not quite universal, though nearly so. The silent _e_ is always retained when the vowel at the beginning of the added syllable would make a soft _c_ or _g_ hard, as in _serviceable, changeable,_ etc. In _changing, chancing,_ etc., the _i_ of the added syllable is sufficient to make the _c_ or _g_ retain its soft sound. In such words as _cringe_ and _singe_ the silent _e_ is retained even before _i_ in order to avoid confusing the words so formed with other words in which the _ng_ has a nasal sound; thus we have _singeing_ to avoid confusion with _singing,_ though we have _singed_ in which the _e_ is dropped before _ed_ because the dropping of it causes no confusion. Formerly the silent _e_ was retained in _moveable_; but now we write _movable,_ according to the rule.
Of course when the added syllable begins with a consonant, the silent _e_ is not dropped, since dropping it would have the effect of shortening the preceding vowel by making it stand before two consonants.
A few monosyllables ending in two vowels, one of which is silent _e,_ are exceptions: _duly, truly_; also _wholly_.
Also final _y_ is changed to _i_ when a syllable is added, unless that added syllable begins with _i_ and two _i_'s would thus come together. _I_ is a vowel never doubled. Th{u} is we have _citified,_ but _citifying_.
We have already seen that final consonants may be doubled under certain circumstances when a syllable is added.
These are nearly all the changes in spelling that are possible when words are formed by adding syllables; but changes in pronunciation and vowel values are often affected, as we have seen in _nation_ (_a_ long) and _national_ (_a_ short).
Prefixes. But words may be formed by prefixing syllables, or by combining two or more words into one. Many of these formations were effected in the Latin before the words were introduced into English; but we can study the principles governing them and gain a key to the spelling of many English words.
In English we unite a preposition with a verb by placing it after the verb and treating it as an adverb. Thus we have "breaking in," "running over," etc. In Latin the preposition in such cases was prefixed to the word; and there were particles used as prefixes which were never used as prepositions. We should become familiar with the principal Latin prefixes and always take them into account in the spelling of English words. The principal Latin prefixes are:
ab (abs)---from ad---to ante---before bi (bis)---twice circum (circu)---around con---with contra(counter)---against de---down, from dis---apart, not ex---out of, away from extra---beyond in---in, into, on; _also_ not (another word) inter---between= non---not ob---in front of, in the way of per---through post---after pre---before pro---for, forth re---back or again retro---backward se---aside semi---half sub---under super---above, over trans---over, beyond ultra---beyond vice---instead of.
Of these prefixes, those ending in a single consonant are likely to change that consonant for euphony to the consonant beginning the word to which the prefix is attached. Thus _ad_ drops the _d_ in _ascend,_ becomes _ac_ in _accord, af_ in _affiliate, an_ in _annex, ap_ in _appropriate, at_ in _attend; con_ becomes _com_ in _commotion,_ also in _compunction_ and _compress, cor_ in _correspond, col_ in _collect, co_ in _co-equal_; _dis_ becomes _dif_ in _differ_; _ex_ becomes _e_ in _eject, ec_ in _eccentric, ef_ in _effect_; _in_ becomes _il_ in _illuminate, im_ in _import, ir_ in _irreconcilable; ob_ becomes _op_ in _oppress, oc_ in _occasion, of_ in _offend_; and _sub_ becomes _suc_ in _succeed, sup_ in _support, suf_ in _suffix, sug_ in _suggest, sus_ in _sustain_. The final consonant is changed to a consonant that can be easily pronounced before the consonant with which the following syllable begins. Following the rule that the root must be changed as little as possible, it is always the prefix, not the root, which is compelled to yield to the demands of euphony.
A little reflection upon the derivation of words will thus often give us a key to the spelling. For instance, suppose we are in doubt whether _irredeemable_ has two _r_'s or only one: we now that _redeem_ is a root, and therefore the _ir_ must be a prefix, and the two _r_'s are accounted for,--- indeed are necessary in order to prevent our losing sight of the derivation and meaning of the word. In the same way, we can never be in doubt as to the two _m_'s in _commotion, commencement,_ etc.
We have already noted the tendency of _y_ to become _i_ in the middle of a word. The exceptional cases are chiefly derivatives from the Greek, and a study of the Greek prefixes will often give us a hint in regard to the spelling of words containing _y_. These prefixes, given here in full for convenience, are:
a (an)---without, not amphi---both, around ana---up, back, through= anti---against, opposite apo (ap)---from cata---down
dia---through en (em)---in epi (ep)---upon hyper---over, excessive hypo---under= meta (met)---beyond, change syn (sy, syl, sym)---with, together
In Greek words also we will find _ph_ with the sound of _f_. We know that _symmetrical, hypophosphite, metaphysics, emphasis,_ etc., are Greek because of the key we find in the prefix, and we are thus prepared for the _y_'s and _ph_'s. _F_ does not exist in the Greek alphabet (except as ph) and so we shall never find it in words derived from the Greek.
The English prefixes are not so often useful in determining peculiar spelling, but for completeness we give them here:
a---at, in, on (ahead) be---to make, by (benumb) en (em)---in, on, to make (encircle, empower) for---not, from (forbear) fore---before (forewarn) mis---wrong, wrongly (misstate) out---beyond (outbreak) over---above (overruling) to---the, this (to-night) un---not, opposite act (unable, undeceive) under---beneath (undermine) with---against, from (withstand)
CHAPTER III.
WORD-BUILDING---RULES AND APPLICATIONS.
There are a few rules and applications of the principles of word-formation which may be found fully treated in the chapter on "Orthography" at the beginning of the dictionary, but which we present here very briefly, together with a summary of principles already discussed.
Rule 1. _F, l,_ and _s_ at the end of a monosyllable after a single vowel are commonly doubled. The exceptions are the cases in which _s_ forms the plural or possessive case of a noun, or third person singular of the verb, and the following words: _clef, if, of, pal, sol, as, gas, has, was, yes, gris, his, is, thus, us. L_ is not doubled at the end of words of more than one syllable, as _parallel, willful,_ etc.
Rule 2. No other consonants thus situated are doubled. Exceptions: _ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, bunn, err, burr, purr, butt, fizz, fuzz, buzz,_ and a few very uncommon words, for which see the chapter in the dictionary above referred to.
Rule 3. A consonant standing at the end of a word immediately after a diphthong or double vowel is never doubled. The word _guess_ is only an apparent exception, since _u_ does not form a combination with _e_ but merely makes the _g_ hard.
Rule 4. Monosyllables ending in the sound of _ic_ represented by _c_ usually take _k_ after the _c_, as in _back, knock,_ etc. Exceptions: _talc, zinc, roc, arc,_ and a few very uncommon words. Words of more than one syllable ending in _ic_ or _iac_ do not take _k_ after the _c_ (except _derrick_), as for example _elegiac, cubic, music,_ etc. If the _c_ is preceded by any other vowel than _i_ or _ia, k_ is added to the _c_, as in _barrack, hammock, wedlock_. Exceptions: _almanac, havoc,_ and a very few uncommon words.
Rule 5. To preserve the hard sound of _c_ when a syllable is added which begins with _e, i,_ or _y, k_ is placed after final _c_, as in _trafficking, zincky, colicky_.
Rule 6. _X_ and _h_ are never doubled, _v_ and _j_ seldom. _G_ with the soft sound cannot be doubled, because then the first _g_ would be made hard. Example: _mag'ic. Q_ always appears with _u_ following it, and here _u_ has the value of the consonant _w_ and in no way combines or is counted with the vowel which may follow it. For instance _squatting_ is written as if _squat_ contained but one vowel.
Rule 7. In simple derivatives a single final consonant following a single vowel in a syllable that receives an accent is doubled when another syllable beginning with a vowel is added.
Rule 8. When accent comes on a syllable standing next to the last, it has a tendency to lengthen the vowel; but on syllables farther from the end, the tendency is to shorten the vowel without doubling the consonant. For example, _na'tion_ (_a_ long), but _na'tional_ (_a_ short); _gram'mar,_ but _grammat'ical_.
Rule 9. Silent _e_ at the end of a word is usually dropped when a syllable beginning with a vowel is added. The chief exceptions are words in which the silent _e_ is retained to preserve the soft sound of _c_ or _g_.
Rule 10. Plurals are regularly formed by adding _s_; but if the word end in a sibilant sound (_sh, zh, z, s, j, ch, x_), the plural is formed by adding _es,_ which is pronounced as a separate syllable. If the word end{s} in a sibilant sound followed by silent _e,_ that _e_ unites with the _s_ to form a separate syllable. Examples: _seas, cans; boxes, churches, brushes; changes, services_.
Rule 11. Final _y_ is regularly changed to _i_ when a syllable is added. In plurals it is changed to _ies,_ except when preceded by a vowel, when a simple _s_ is added without change of the _y_. Examples: _clumsy, clumsily_; _city, cities_; _chimney, chimneys_. We have _colloquies_ because _u_ after _q_ has the value of the consonant _w_. There are a few exceptions to the above rule. When two _i_'s would come together, the _y_ is not changed, as in _carrying_.
Rule 12. Words ending, in a double consonant commonly retain the double consonant in derivatives. The chief exception is _all,_ which drops one _l,_ as in _almighty, already, although,_ etc. According to English usage other words ending in double _l_ drop one _l_ in derivatives, and we have _skilful_ (for _skillful_), _wilful_ (for _willful_), etc., but Webster does not approve this custom. _Ful_ is an affix, not the word _full_ in a compound.
EXCEPTIONS AND IRREGULARITIES.
1. Though in the case of simple words ending in a double consonant the derivatives usually retain the double consonant, _pontific_ and _pontifical_ (from _pontiff_) are exceptions, and when three letters of the same kind would come together, one is usually dropped, as in _agreed_ (_agree_ plus _ed_), _illy_ (_ill_ plus _ly_), _belless,_ etc. We may write _bell-less,_ etc., however, in the case of words in which three _l_'s come together, separating the syllables by a hyphen.
2. To prevent two _i_'s coming together, we change _i_ to _y_ in _dying, tying, vying,_ etc., from _die, tie,_ and _vie_.
3. Derivatives from _adjectives_ ending in _y_ do not change _y_ to _i_, and we have _shyly, shyness, slyly,_ etc., though _drier_ and _driest_ from _dry_ are used. The _y_ is not changed before _ship,_ as in _secretaryship, ladyship,_ etc., nor in _babyhood_ and _ladykin_.
4. We have already seen that _y_ is not changed in derivatives when it is preceded by another vowel, as in the case of _joyful,_ etc.; but we find exceptions to this principle in _daily, laid, paid, said, saith, slain,_ and _staid_; and many write _gaily_ and _gaiety,_ though Webster prefers _gayly_ and _gayety_.
5. Nouns of one syllable ending in _o_ usually take a silent _e_ also, as _toe, doe, shoe,_ etc, but other parts of speech do not take the _e,_ as _do, to, so, no,_ and the like, and nouns of more than one syllable, as _potato, tomato,_ etc., omit the _e_. Monosyllables ending in _oe_ usually retain the silent _e_ in derivatives, and we have _shoeing, toeing,_ etc. The commoner English nouns ending in _o_ also have the peculiarity of forming the plural by adding _es_ instead of _s,_ and we have _potatoes, tomatoes, heroes, echoes, cargoes, embargoes, mottoes_; but nouns a trifle more foreign form their plurals regularly, as _solos, zeros, pianos,_ etc. When a vowel precedes the _o,_ the plural is always formed regularly. The third person singular of the verb _woo_ is _wooes,_ of _do does,_ of _go goes,_ etc., in analogy with the plurals of the nouns ending in _o_.
6. The following are exceptions to the rule that silent _e_ is retained in derivatives when the added syllable begins with a consonant: _judgment, acknowledgment, lodgment, wholly, abridgment, wisdom,_ etc.
7. Some nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change those terminations to _ve_ in the plural, as _beef---beeves, leaf---leaves, knife---knives, loaf---loaves, life---lives, wife---wives, thief---thieves, wolf---wolves, self---selves, shelf---shelves, calf---calves, half---halves, elf---elves, sheaf---sheaves_. We have _chief---chiefs_ and _handkerchief---handkerchiefs,_ however, and the same is true of all nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ except those given above.
8. A few nouns form their plurals by changing a single vowel, as _man---men, woman---women, goose---geese, foot---feet, tooth---teeth,_ etc. Compounds follow the rule of the simple form, but the plural of _talisman_ is _talismans,_ of _German_ is _Germans,_ of _musselman_ is _musselmans,_ because these are not compounds of _men_.
9. A few plurals are formed by adding _en,_ as _brother---brethren, child---children, ox---oxen_.
10. _Brother, pea, die,_ and _penny_ have each two plurals, which differ in meaning. _Brothers_ refers to male children of the same parents, _brethren_ to members of a religious body or the like; _peas_ is used when a definite number is mentioned, _pease_ when bulk is referred to; _dies_ are instruments used for stamping, etc., _dice_ cubical blocks used in games of chance; _pennies_ refer to a given number of coins, _pence_ to an amount reckoned by the coins. _Acquaintance_ is sometimes used in the plural for _acquaintances_ with no difference of meaning.
11. A few words are the same in the plural as in the singular, as _sheep, deer, trout,_ etc.
12. Some words derived from foreign languages retain the plurals of those languages. For example: datum---data criterion---criteria genus---genera larva---larvć= crisis---crises matrix---matrices focus---foci monsieur---messieurs
13. A few allow either a regular plural or the plural retained from the foreign language: formula---formulć or formulas beau---beaux or beaus index---indices or indexes stratum---strata or stratums bandit---banditti or bandits cherub---cherubim or cherubs seraph---seraphim or seraphs
14. In very loose compounds in which a noun is followed by an adjective or the like, the noun commonly takes the plural ending, as in _courts-martial, sons-in-law, cousins-german_. When the adjective is more closely joined, the plural ending must be placed at the end of the entire word. Thus we have _cupfuls, handfuls,_ etc.
Different Spellings for the same Sound.
Perhaps the greatest difficulty in spelling English words arises from the fact that words and syllables pronounced alike are often spelled differently, and there is no rule to guide us in distinguishing. In order to fix their spelling, in mind we should know what classes of words are doubtful, and when we come to them constantly refer to the dictionary. To try to master these except in the connections in which we wish to use them the writer believes to be worse than folly. By studying such words in pairs, confusion is very likely to be fixed forever in the mind. Most spelling-books commit this error, and so are responsible for a considerable amount of bad spelling, which their method has actually introduced and instilled into the child's mind.
Persons who read much are not likely to make these errors, since they remember words by the form as it appeals to the eye, not by the sound in which there is no distinction. The study of such words should therefore be conducted chiefly while writing or reading, not orally.
While we must memorize, one at a time as we come to them in reading or writing, the words or syllables in which the same sound is represented by different spellings, still we should know clearly what classes of words to be on the lookout for. We will now consider some of the classes of words in which a single syllable may be spelled in various ways.
Vowel Substitutions in Simple Words.
ea for e` short or e obscure before r.
already bread breakfast breast breadth death earth dead deaf dread= early earn earnest earth feather head health heaven heavy= heard lead learn leather meadow measure pearl pleasant read= search sergeant spread steady thread threaten tread wealth weather
ee for e: long.
agree beef breed cheek cheese creek creep cheer deer deed deep feed= feel feet fleece green heel heed indeed keep keel keen kneel meek= need needle peel peep queer screen seed seen sheet sheep sleep sleeve= sneeze squeeze street speech steeple steet sweep sleet teeth weep weed week
ea for e: long.
appear bead beach bean beast beat beneath breathe cease cheap cheat clean clear congeal cream crease creature dear deal dream defeat= each ear eager easy east eaves feast fear feat grease heap hear heat increase knead lead leaf leak lean least leave= meat meal mean neat near peas (pease) peal peace peach please preach reach read reap rear reason repeat scream= seam seat season seal speak steam streak stream tea team tear tease teach veal weave weak wheat wreath (wreathe) year yeast
ai for a: long.
afraid aid braid brain complain daily dairy daisy drain dainty explain fail fain= gain gait gaiter grain hail jail laid maid maim nail paid= pail paint plain prairie praise quail rail rain raise raisin remain sail= saint snail sprain stain straight strain tail train vain waist wait waive
ai for i or e obscure.
bargain captain certain curtain mountain
oa for o: long.
board boat cloak coax coal coast coarse= float foam goat gloam groan hoarse load= loan loaf oak oar oats roast road= roam shoal soap soar throat toad toast
ie for e: long.
believe chief= fierce grief= niece priest= piece thief
ei for e long.
neither receipt receive
In _sieve, ie_ has the sound of _i_ short.
In _eight, skein, neighbor, rein, reign, sleigh, vein, veil, weigh,_ and _weight, ei_ has the sound of _a_ long.
In _height, sleight,_ and a few other words _ei_ has the sound of _i_ long.
In _great, break,_ and _steak ea_ has the sound of _a_ long; in _heart_ and _hearth_ it has the sound of _a_ Italian, and in _tear_ and _bear_ it has the sound of _a_ as in _care_.
Silent Consonants etc.
although answer bouquet bridge calf calm catch castle caught chalk climb ditch dumb edge folks comb daughter debt depot forehead gnaw hatchet hedge hiccough= hitch honest honor hustle island itch judge judgment knack knead kneel knew knife knit knuckle knock knot know knowledge lamb latch laugh limb listen= match might muscle naughty night notch numb often palm pitcher pitch pledge ridge right rough scene scratch should sigh sketch snatch soften stitch switch= sword talk though through thought thumb tough twitch thigh walk watch whole witch would write written wrapper wring wrong wrung wrote wrestle yacht
Unusual Spellings.
The following words have irregularities peculiar to themselves.
ache any air apron among again aunt against biscuit build busy business bureau because carriage coffee collar color country couple cousin cover does dose= done double diamond every especially February flourish flown fourteen forty fruit gauge glue gluey guide goes handkerchief honey heifer impatient iron juice liar lion= liquor marriage mayor many melon minute money necessary ninety ninth nothing nuisance obey ocean once onion only other owe owner patient people pigeon prayer= pray prepare rogue scheme scholar screw shoe shoulder soldier stomach sugar succeed precede proceed procedure suspicion they tongue touch trouble wagon were where wholly
C with the sound of s.
In the following words the sound of _s_ is represented by _c_ followed by a vowel that makes this letter soft:
city face ice juice lace necessary nuisance once pencil police policy pace race rice space trace twice trice thrice nice price slice= lice spice circus citron circumstance centre cent cellar certain circle concert concern cell dunce decide December dance disgrace exercise excellent except force= fleece fierce furnace fence grocer grace icicle instance innocent indecent decent introduce juice justice lettuce medicine mercy niece ounce officer patience peace= piece place principal principle parcel produce prejudice trace voice receipt recite cite sauce saucer sentence scarcely since silence service crevice novice
Words ending in cal and cle.
Words in _cal_ are nearly all derived from other words ending in _ic,_ as _classical, cubical, clerical,_ etc. Words ending in _cle_ are (as far as English is concerned) original words, as _cuticle, miracle, manacle,_ etc. When in doubt, ask the question if, on dropping the _al_ or _le,_ a complete word ending in _ic_ would be left. If such a word is left, the ending is _al,_ if not, it is probably _le_.
Er and re.
Webster spells _theater, center, meter,_ etc., with the termination _er,_ but most English writers prefer _re. Meter_ is more used to denote a device for measuring (as a "gas meter"), _meter_ as the French unit of length (in the "Metric system"). In words like _acre_ even Webster retains _re_ because _er_ would make the _c_ (or _g_) soft.
Words ending in er, ar, or.
First, let it be said that in most words these three syllables (_er, ar, or_), are pronounced very nearly if not exactly alike (except a few legal terms in or, like _mort'gageor_), and we should not try to give an essentially different sound to _ar_ or _or_* from that we give to _er_. The ending _er_ is the regular one, and those words ending in _ar_ or _or_ are very few in number. They constitute the exceptions.
*While making no especial difference in the vocalization of these syllables, careful speakers dwell on them a trifle longer than they do on _er_.
Common words ending in _ar_ with the sound of _er_:
liar collar beggar burglar solar cedar jugular scholar= calendar secular dollar grammar tabular poplar pillar sugar= jocular globular mortar lunar vulgar popular insular Templar= ocular muscular nectar similar tubular altar (for worship) singular
In some words we have the same syllable with the same sound in the next to the last syllable, as in _solitary, preliminary, ordinary, temporary_. etc. The syllable _ard_ with the sound of _erd_ is also found, as in _standard, wizard, mustard, mallard,_ etc.
Common words ending in _or_ with the sound of _er_:
honor valor mayor sculptor prior ardor clamor labor tutor warrior razor flavor auditor juror favor tumor editor vigor actor author conductor savior visitor elevator parlor ancestor captor creditor victor= error proprietor arbor chancellor debtor doctor instructor successor rigor senator suitor traitor donor inventor odor conqueror senior tenor tremor bachelor junior oppressor possessor liquor surveyor vapor governor languor professor= spectator competitor candor harbor meteor orator rumor splendor elector executor factor generator impostor innovator investor legislator narrator navigator numerator operator originator perpetrator personator predecessor protector prosecutor projector reflector regulator= sailor senator separator solicitor supervisor survivor tormentor testator transgressor translator divisor director dictator denominator creator counsellor councillor administrator aggressor agitator arbitrator assessor benefactor collector compositor conspirator constructor contributor tailor
The _o_ and _a_ in such words as the above are retained in the English spelling because they were found in the Latin roots from which the words were derived. Some, though not all, of the above words in or are usually spelled in England with our, as _splendour, saviour,_ etc., and many books printed in this country for circulation in England retain this spelling. See {end of a}p{pendix} ..
Words ending in able and ible.
Another class of words in which we are often confused is those which end in _able_ or _ible_. The great majority end in _able,_ but a few derived from Latin words in _ibilis_ retain the _i_. A brief list of common words ending in _ible_ is subjoined:
compatible compressible convertible forcible enforcible gullible horrible sensible terrible possible visible= perceptible susceptible audible credible combustible eligible intelligible irascible inexhaustible reversible= plausible permissible accessible digestible responsible admissible fallible flexible incorrigible irresistible= ostensible tangible contemptible divisible discernible corruptible edible legible indelible indigestible
Of course when a soft _g_ precedes the doubtful letter, as in _legible,_ we are always certain that we should write _i,_ not _a_. All words formed from plain English words add _able_. Those familiar with Latin will have little difficulty in recognizing the _i_ as an essential part of the root.
Words ending in ent and ant, and ence and ance.
Another class of words concerning which we must also feel doubt is that terminating in _ence_ and _ance,_ or _ant_ and _ent_. All these words are from the Latin, and the difference in termination is usually due to whether they come from verbs of the first conjugation or of other conjugations. As there is no means of distinguishing, we must continually refer to the dictionary till we have learned each one. We present a brief list:
ent confident belligerent independent transcendent competent insistent consistent convalescent correspondent corpulent dependent despondent expedient impertinent inclement insolvent intermittent prevalent superintendent recipient proficient efficient eminent excellent fraudulent latent opulent convenient corpulent descendent different=
ant abundant accountant arrogant assailant assistant attendant clairvoyant combatant recreant consonant conversant defendant descendent discordant elegant exorbitant important incessant irrelevant luxuriant malignant petulant pleasant poignant reluctant stagnant triumphant vagrant warrant attendant repentant
A few of these words may have either termination according to the meaning, as _confident_ (adj.) and _confidant_ (noun). Usually the noun ends in _ant,_ the adjective in _ent_. Some words ending in _ant_ are used both as noun and as adjective, as _attendant_. The abstract nouns in _ence_ or _ance_ correspond to the adjectives. But there are several of which the adjective form does not appear in the above list:
ence abstinence existence innocence diffidence diligence essence indigence negligence obedience occurrence reverence vehemence residence violence reminiscence intelligence presence prominence prudence reference reverence transference turbulence consequence indolence patience beneficence preference=
ance annoyance cognizance vengeance compliance conveyance ignorance grievance fragrance pittance alliance defiance acquaintance deliverance appearance accordance countenance sustenance remittance connivance resistance nuisance utterance variance vigilance maintenance forbearance temperance repentance
Vowels e and i before ous.
The vowels _e_ and _i_ sometimes have the value of the consonant _y,_ as _e_ in _righteous_. There is also no clear distinction in sound between _eous_ and _ions_. The following lists are composed chiefly of words in which the _e_ or the _i_ has its usual value.* In which words does _e_ or _i_ have the consonant value of _y?_
eons aqueous gaseous hideous courteous instantaneous miscellaneous simultaneous spontaneous righteous gorgeous nauseous outrageous=
ious. copious dubious impious delirious impervious amphibious ceremonious deleterious supercilious punctilious religious sacrilegious
Notice that all the accented vowels except _i_ in antepenultimate syllables are long before this termination.
Words ending in ize, ise, and yse.
In English we have a few verbs ending in _ise,_ though _ize_ is the regular ending of most verbs of this class, at least according to the American usage. In England _ise_ is often substituted for _ize_. The following words derived through the French must always be written with the termination _ise_:
advertise catechise compromise devise divertise exercise misprise supervise advise chastise= criticise disfranchise emprise exorcise premise surmise affranchise circumcise demise disguise= enfranchise franchise reprise surprise apprise comprise despise disenfranchise enterprise manumise
A few words end in _yse_ (yze): _analyse, paralyse_. They are all words from the Greek.
Words ending in cious, sion, tion, etc.
The common termination is _tious,_ but there are a few words ending in _cious,_ among them the following:
avaricious pernicious tenacious= capricious suspicious precocious= judicious vicious sagacious= malicious conscious
The endings _tion_ and _sion_ are both common; _sion_ usually being the termination of words originally ending in _d, de, ge, mit, rt, se,_ and _so,_ as _extend---extension_.
_Cion_ and _cian_ are found only in a few words, such as _suspicion, physician_. Also, while _tial_ is most common by far, we have _cial,_ as in _special, official,_ etc.
Special words with c sounded like s.
We have already given a list of simple words in which _c_ is used for _s,_ but the following may be singled out because they are troublesome:
acquiesce paucity reticence vacillate coincidence= publicity license tenacity crescent prejudice= scenery condescend effervesce proboscis scintillate= oscillate rescind transcend
Words with obscure Vowels.
The following words are troublesome because some vowel, usually in the next to the last syllable unaccented, is so obscured that the pronunciation does not give us a key to it:
a almanac apathy avarice cataract citadel dilatory malady ornament palatable propagate salary separate extravagant=
e celebrate desecrate supplement liquefy petroleum rarefy skeleton telescope tragedy gayety lineal renegade secretary deprecate execrate implement maleable promenade recreate stupefy tenement vegetate academy remedy revenue serenade=
i expiate privilege rarity stupidity verify epitaph retinue nutriment vestige medicine impediment prodigy serenity terrify edifice orifice sacrilege specimen
Words ending in cy and sy.
_Cy_ is the common termination, but some words are troublesome because they terminate in _sy. Prophecy_ is the noun, _prophesy_ the verb, distinguished in pronunciation by the fact that the final _y_ in the verb is long, in the noun it is short. The following are a few words in _sy_ which deserve notice:
controversy ecstasy= embassy heresy= hypocrisy courtesy= fantasy ________
The above lists are for reference and for review. No one, in school or out, should attempt to memorize these words offhand. The only rational way to learn them is by reference to the dictionary when one has occasion to write them, and to observe them in reading. These two habits, the use of the dictionary and observing the formation of words in reading, will prove more effective in the mastery of words of this character than three times the work applied in any other way. The usual result of the effort to memorize in lists is confusion so instilled that it can never be eradicated.
By way of review it is often well to look over such lists as those above, and common words which one is likely to use and which one feels one ought to have mastered, may be checked with a pencil, and the attention concentrated upon them for a few minutes. It will be well also to compare such words as _stupefy_ and _stupidity, rarity_ and _rarefy_.
Homonyms.
The infatuation of modern spelling-book makers has introduced the present generation to a serious difficulty in spelling which was not accounted great in olden times. The pupil now has forced upon him a large number of groups of words pronounced alike but spelled differently.
The peculiar trouble with these words is due to the confusion between the two forms, and to increase this the writers of spelling-books have insisted on placing the two forms side by side in black type or italic so that the pupil may forever see those two forms dancing together before his eyes whenever he has occasion to use one of them. The attempt is made to distinguish them by definitions or use in sentences; but as the mind is not governed by logical distinctions so much as by association, the pupil is taught to associate each word with the word which may cause him trouble, not especially with the meaning to which the word ought to be so wedded that there can be no doubt or separation.
These words should no doubt receive careful attention; but the association of one with the other should never be suggested to the pupil: it is time enough to distinguish the two when the pupil has actually confused them. The effort should always be made to fix in the pupil's mind from the beginning an association of each word with that which will be a safe key at all times. Thus _hear_ may be associated (should always be associated) with _ear, their_ (_theyr_) with _they, here_ and _there_ with each other and with _where,_ etc. It will also be found that in most cases one word is more familiar than the other, as for instances _been_ and _bin_. We learn _been_ and never would think of confusing it with _bin_ were we not actually taught to do so. In such cases it is best to see that the common word is quite familiar; then the less common word may be introduced, and nine chances out of ten the pupil will not dream of confusion. In a few cases in which both words are not very often used, and are equally common or uncommon, as for instance _mantle_ and _mantel,_ distinction may prove useful as a method of teaching, but generally it will be found best to drill upon one of the words, finding some helpful association for it, until it is thoroughly mastered; then the pupil will know that the other word is spelled in the other way, and think no more about it.
The following quotations contain words which need special drill. This is best secured by writing ten or twenty sentences containing each word, an effort being made to use the word in as many different ways and connections as possible. Thus we may make sentences containing _there,_ as follows:
There, where his kind and gentle face looks down upon me, I used to stand and gaze upon the marble form of Lincoln.
Here and there we found a good picture.
There was an awful crowd.
I stopped there a few moments.
Etc., etc.
Quotations.
Heaven's _gate_ is shut to him who comes alone. ---_Whittier_.
Many a _tale_ of former day Shall wing the laughing hours away. ---_Byron_.
Fair hands the broken grain shall sift, And _knead_ its meal of gold. ---_Whittier_.
They are slaves who fear to speak For the fallen and the _weak. ---Lowell_.
If any man hath ears to _hear,_ let him hear. And he saith unto them, Take heed what ye _hear. ---Bible_.
Hark! I _hear_ music on the zephyr's wing. ---_Shelley_.
_Row,_ brothers, _row,_ the stream runs fast, The rapids are near, and the daylight's past! ---_Moore_.
Each boatman bending to his _oar,_ With measured sweep the burden bore. ---_Scott_.
The visions of my youth are past, _Too_ bright, _too_ beautiful to last. ---_Bryant_.
(We seldom err in the use of _to_ and _two_; but in how many different ways may _too_ properly be used?)
With kind words and kinder looks he _bade_ me go my way. ---_Whittier_. (The _a_ in _bade_ is short.)
Then, as to greet the sunbeam's birth, Rises the choral _hymn_ of earth. ---_Mrs. Hemans_.
Come thou with me to the vineyards nigh, And we'll pluck the grapes of the richest _dye. ---Mrs. Hemans_.
If any one attempts to _haul_ down the American flag, shoot him on the spot. ---_John A. Dix_.
In all the trade of war, no _feat_ Is nobler than a brave retreat. ---_Samuel Butler_.
His form was bent, and his _gait_ was slow, His long thin hair was white as snow. ---_George Arnold_.
Green pastures she views in the midst of the dale, Down which she so often has tripped with her _pail. ---Wordsworth_.
Like Aesop's fox when he had lost his _tail_, would have all his fellow-foxes cut off theirs. ---_Robert Burton_.
He that is thy friend indeed, He will help thee in thy _need. ---Shakspere_.
Flowery May, who from her green lap throws The yellow cowslip, and the _pale_ primrose. ---_Milton_.
What, keep a _week_ away? Seven days and seven nights? Eight score and eight hours? ---_Shakspere_.
Spring and Autumn _here_ Danc'd hand in hand. ---_Milton_.
Chasing the wild _deer,_ and following the _roe,_ My heart's in the Highlands wherever I go. ---_Burns_.
Th' allotted hour of daily sport is _o'er,_ And Learning beckons from her temple's door? ---_Byron_.
_To_ know, to esteem, to love, and then to part, Makes up life's tale to many a feeling heart. ---_Coleridge_.
Bad men excuse their faults, good men will leave them. ---_Ben Jonson_. He was a man, take _him_ for all in all, I shall not look upon his like again. ---_Shakspere_.
There will little learning _die_ then, that day thou art hanged. ---_Shakspere_.
Be merry all, be merry all, With holly dress the festive _hall. ---W. R. Spencer_.
When youth and pleasure meet, To chase the glowing hours with flying _feet. ---Byron_.
Quotations containing words in the following list may be found in "Wheeler's Graded Studies in Great Authors: A Complete Speller," from which the preceding quotations were taken. Use these words in sentences, and if you are not sure of them, look them up in the dictionary, giving especial attention to quotations containing them.
ale dear rode ore blew awl thyme new ate lief cell dew sell won praise high prays hie be inn ail road rowed by blue tier so all two time knew ate leaf one due sew tear buy lone hare night clime sight tolled site knights maid cede beech waste bred piece sum plum e'er cent son weight tier rein weigh heart wood paws through fur fare main pare beech meet wrest led bow seen earn plate wear rote peel you berry flew know dough groan links see lye bell= great aught foul mean seam moan knot rap bee wrap not loan told cite hair seed night knit made peace in waist bread climb heard sent sun some air tares rain way wait threw fir hart pause would pear fair mane lead meat rest scent bough reign scene sail bier pray right toe yew sale prey rite rough tow steal done bare their creek soul draught four base beet heel but steaks coarse choir cord chaste boar butt stake waive choose stayed cast maze ween hour birth horde aisle core= rice male none plane pore fete poll sweet throe borne root been load feign forte vein kill rime shown wrung hew ode ere wrote wares urn plait arc bury peal doe grown flue know sea lie mete lynx bow stare belle read grate ark ought slay thrown vain bin lode fain fort fowl mien write mown sole drafts fore bass beat seem steel dun bear there creak bore ball wave chews staid caste maize heel bawl course quire chord chased tide sword nun plain pour fate wean hoard berth= isle throne vane seize sore slight freeze knave fane reek Rome rye style flea faint peak throw bourn route soar sleight frieze nave reck sere wreak roam wry flee feint pique mite seer idle pistol flower holy serf borough capital canvas indict martial kernel carat bridle lesson council collar levy accept affect deference emigrant prophesy sculptor plaintive populous ingenious lineament desert extent pillow stile descent incite pillar device patients lightening proceed plaintiff prophet immigrant fisher difference presents effect except levee choler counsel lessen bridal carrot colonel marshal indite assent sleigh= our stair capitol alter pearl might kiln rhyme shone rung hue pier strait wreck sear Hugh lyre whorl surge purl altar cannon ascent principle mantle weather barren current miner cellar mettle pendent advice illusion assay felicity genius profit statute poplar precede lightning patience devise disease insight dissent decease extant dessert ingenuous liniment stature sculpture fissure facility essay allusion advise pendant metal seller minor complement currant baron wether mantel principal burrow canon surf wholly serge whirl liar idyl flour pistil idol rise rude team corps peer straight teem reed beau compliment
The preceding list contains several pairs of words often confused with each other though they are not pronounced exactly alike.
Of course when confusion actually exists in a person's mind, a drill on distinctions is valuable. But in very many cases no confusion exists, and in such cases it is worse than unfortunate to introduce it to the mind. In any case it is by far the better way to drill upon each word separately, using it in sentences in as many different ways as possible; and the more familiar of two words pronounced alike or nearly alike should be taken up first. When that is fixed, passing attention may be given to the less familiar; but it is a great error to give as much attention to the word that will be little used as to the word which will be used often. In the case of a few words such as _principle_ and _principal, counsel_ and _council,_ confusion is inevitable, and the method of distinction and contrast must be used; but even in cases like this, the method of studying each word exhaustively by itself will undoubtedly yield good results.
Division of Words into Syllables.
In writing it is often necessary to break words at the ends of lines. This can properly be done only between syllables, and this is the usage in the United States for the most part, though in Great Britain words are usually divided so as to show their etymological derivation.
The following rules will show the general usage in this country:
1. All common English prefixes and suffixes are kept undivided, even if the pronunciation would seem to require division. Thus, _tion,_ and similar endings, _ble, cions,_ etc., are never divided. The termination _ed_ may be carried over to the next line even when it is not pronounced, as in _scorn-ed,_ but this is objectionable and should be avoided when possible. When a Latin or other foreign prefix appears in English as an essential part of the root of the word, and the pronunciation requires a different division from that which would separate the original parts, the word is divided as pronounced, as _pref'ace_ (because we pronounce the _e_ short), _prog'-ress,_ etc. (The English divide thus: _pre-face, pro-gress_.)
2. Otherwise, words are divided as pronounced, and the exact division may be found in the dictionary. When a vowel is followed by a single consonant and is short, the consonant stands with the syllable which precedes it, especially if accented. Examples: _gram-mat'-ic-al, math-e-mat'-ics_. (The people of Great Britain write these words _gram-ma-ti-cal, ma-the-ma-ti -c{s} a l,_ etc.)
3. Combinations of consonants forming digraphs are never divided. Examples: ng, th, ph.
4. Double consonants are divided. Examples: _Run-ning, drop-ped_ (if absolutely necessary to divide this word), _sum-mer_.
5. Two or more consonants, unless they are so united as to form digraphs or fixed groups, are usually divided according to pronunciation. Examples: _pen-sive, sin-gle_ (here the _n_ has the _ng_ nasal sound, and the _g_ is connected with the _l_), _doc-tor, con-ster-nation, ex-am.-ple, sub-st an-tive_.
6. A vowel sounded long should as a rule close the syllable, except at the end of a word. Examples: _na'-tion_ (we must also write _na'-tion-al,_ because _tion_ cannot be divided), _di-men'-sion, deter'min-ate, con-no-ta'-tion_.
Miscellaneous examples: _ex-haust'-ive, pre-par'a-tive, sen-si-bil'-i-ty, joc'-u-lar-y, pol-y-phon'-ic, op-po'-nent_.
CHAPTER IV.
PRONUNCIATION.
This chapter is designed to serve two practical objects: First, to aid in the correction and improvement of the pronunciation of everyday English; second, to give hints that will guide a reader to a ready and substantially correct pronunciation of strange words and names that may occasionally be met with.
Accent.
Let us first consider accent. We have already tried to indicate what it is. We will now attempt to find out what principles govern it.
Accent is very closely associated with rhythm. It has already been stated that a reading of poetry will cultivate an ear for accent. If every syllable or articulation of language received exactly the same stress, or occupied exactly the same time in pronunciation, speech would have an intolerable monotony, and it would be impossible to give it what is called "expression." Expression is so important a part of language that the arts of the orator, the actor, and the preacher depend directly upon it. It doubles the value of words.
The foundation of expression is rhythm, or regular succession of stress and easy gliding over syllables. In Latin it was a matter of "quantity," or long and short vowels. In English it is a mixture of "quantity" (or length and shortness of vowels) and special stress given by the speaker to bring out the meaning as well as to please the ear. Hence English has a range and power that Latin could never have had.
In poetry, accent, quantity, and rhythm are exaggerated according to an artificial plan; but the same principles govern all speech in a greater or less degree, and even the pronunciation of every word of two syllables or more. The fundamental element is "time" as we know it in music. In music every bar has just so much time allotted to it, but that time may be variously divided up between different notes. Thus, suppose the bar is based on the time required for one full note. We may have in place of one full note two half notes or four quarter notes, or a half note lengthened by half and followed by two eight notes, or two quarter notes followed by a half note, and so on. The total time remains the same, but it may be variously divided, though not without reference to the way in which other bars in the same piece of music are divided.
We will drop music and continue our illustration by reference to English poetry. In trochaic meter we have an accented syllable followed by an unaccented, and in dactylic we have an accented syllable followed by two unaccented syllables, as for instance in the following:
Trochaic--- "In' his cham'ber, weak' and dy'ing, Was' the Nor'man bar'on ly'ing."
Dactylic-- "This' is the for'est prime'val. The mur'muring pines' and the hem'locks . . . Stand' like Dru'ids of eld'."
Or in the iambic we have an unaccented syllable followed by an accented, as in-- "It was' the schoo'ner Hes'perus' That sai'led the win'try sea'."
But if two syllables are so short that they can be uttered in the same time as one, two syllables will satisfy the meter just as well as one. Thus we have the following, in the same general met{r}e r as the foregoing quotation: "I stood' on the bridge' at mid'night, As the clocks' were stri'king the hour'."
It is all a matter of time. If we were to place a syllable that required a long time for utterance in a place where only a short time could be given to it, we should seriously break the rhythmic flow; and all the pauses indicated by punctuation marks are taken into account, in the same way that rests are counted in music. The natural pause at the end of a line of poetry often occupies the time of an entire syllable, and we have a rational explanation of what has been called without explanation "catalectic" and "acatalectic" lines.
The same principles govern the accenting of single words in a very large degree, and must be taken into account in reading prose aloud.
The general tendency of the English language is to throw the accent toward the beginning of a word, just as in French the tendency is to throw it toward the end. Words of two and three syllables are regularly accented on the first syllable; but if the second syllable is stronger than the first, it will get the accent. Thus we have _sum'mer, ar'gue, pres'ent,_ etc.; but _agree', resolve', retain',_ etc.* We have indicated above a natural reason why it cannot fail in the cases mentioned. The voice would be incapable of accenting easily the unimportant prefix in such a word as _ac-cuse',_ for instance.
Sometimes the strength of both syllables in words of two syllables is equal, and then the accent may be placed on either at will, as in the case of _re'tail,_ and _retail', pro'ceed_ and _proceed',_ etc. There are about sixty of these words capable of being differently accented according to meaning. The verb usually takes the accent on the last syllable. In words in which it seems desirable on account of the meaning to accent the first syllable when the second syllable is naturally stronger, that second syllable is deliberately shortened in the pronunciation, as in _moun'tain, cur'tain,_ etc., in which the last syllable has the value of _tin_.
*In the chapter at the beginning of Webster's dictionary devoted to accent it is stated that these words are accented on the last syllable because by derivation the root rather than the prefix receives the accent. This "great principle of derivation" often fails, it is admitted. We have indicated above a natural reason why it cannot fail in the cases mentioned. The voice would be incapable of accenting easily the unimportant prefix in such a word as _ac-cuse',_ for instance.
In words of three syllables, the accent is usually on the first syllable, especially if the second syllable is weak and the last syllable no weaker if not indeed stronger. Thus we have _pe'-ri-od, per'-son-ate, It'-aly,_ etc.
If for any reason the second syllable becomes stronger than either the first or the last, then the second syllable must receive the accent and the syllable before it is usually strengthened. Thus we have _i-tal'-ic,_ and there is a natural tendency to make the _i_ long, though in _Italy_ it is short. This is because _tal_ is stronger than _ic,_ though not stronger than _y_. The syllable _ic_ is very weak, but the obscure _er,_ or, _ur_ is still weaker, and so we have _rhet'-or-ic_. In _his-tor'-ic_ the first syllable is too weak to take an accent, and we strengthen its second syllable, giving _o_ the _aw_ sound.
It will be seen that in words of two or more syllables there may be a second, and even a third accent, the voice dwelling on every other syllable. In _pe'-ri-od_ the dwelling on _od_ is scarcely perceptible, but in _pe'-ri-od'-ic_ it becomes the chief accent, and it receives this special force because _ic_ is so weak, In _ter'-ri-to-ry_ the secondary accent on _to_ is slight because _ri_ is nearly equal and it is easy to spread the stress over both syllables equally.
The principles above illustrated have a decided limitation in the fact that the value of vowels in English is more or less variable, and the great "principle of derivation," as Webster calls it, exercises a still potent influence, though one becoming every year less binding. The following words taken bodily from the Greek or Latin are accented on the penult rather than the antepenult (as analogy would lead us to accent them) because in the original language the penultimate vowel was long: abdo'men, hori'zon, deco'rum, diplo'ma, muse'um, sono'rous, acu'men, bitu'men; and similarly such words as farra'go, etc. We may never be sure just how to accent a large class of names taken from the Latin and Greek without knowing the length of the vowel in the original,--such words, for example, as _Mede'a, Posi'don_ (more properly written _Posei'don_), _Came'nia, Iphigeni'a, Casto'lus, Cas'tores, etc_.
In a general way we may assume that the chief accent lies on either the penult or antepenult, the second syllable from the end, or the third, and we will naturally place it upon the one that appears to us most likely to be strong, while a slight secondary accent goes on every second syllable before or after. If the next to the last syllable is followed by a double consonant, we are sure it must be accented, and if the combination of consonants is such that we cannot easily accent the preceding syllable we need entertain no reasonable doubt. By constant observation we will soon learn the usual value of vowels and syllables as we pronounce them in ordinary speaking, and will follow the analogy. If we have difficulty in determining the chief accent, we will naturally look to see where secondary accents may come, and thus get the key to the accent.
It will be seen that rules are of little value, in this as in other departments of the study of language. The main thing is to form the _habit of observing_ words as we read and pronounce them, and thus develop a habit and a sense that will guide us. The important thing to start with is that we should know the general principle on which accent is based.
Special Rules for Accent.
Words having the following terminations are usually accented on the antepenult, or third syllable from the end: _cracy, ferous, fluent, flous, honal, gony, grapher, graphy, loger, logist, logy, loquy, machy, mathy, meter, metry, nomy, nomy, parous, pathy, phony, scopy, strophe, tomy, trophy, vomous, vorous_.
Words of more than two syllables ending in _cate, date, gate, fy, tude,_ and _ty_ preceded by a vowel usually accent the antepenult, as _dep'recate,_ etc.
All words ending in a syllable beginning with an _sh_ or _zh_ sound, or _y_ consonant sound, except those words ending in _ch_ sounded like _sh_ as _capu-chin',_ accent the penult or next to the last syllable, as _dona'tion, condi'tion,_ etc.
Words ending in _ic_ usually accent the penult, _scientif'ic, histor'ic,_ etc. The chief exceptions are _Ar'abic, arith'metic, ar'senic, cath'olic, chol'eric, her'etic, lu'natic, pleth'oric, pol'itic, rhet'oric, tur'meric. Climacteric_ is accented by some speakers on one syllable and by some on the other; so are _splenetic_ and _schismatic_.
Most words ending in _eal_ accent the antepenult, but _ide'al_ and _hymene'al_ are exceptions. Words in _ean_ and _eum_ are divided, some one way and some the other.
Words of two syllable ending in _ose_ usually accent the last syllable, as _verbose',_ but words of three or more syllables with this ending accent the antepenult, with a secondary accent on the last syllable, as _com'-a-tose_.
When it is desired to distinguish words differing but by a syllable, the syllable in which the difference lies is given a special accent, as in _bi'en'nial_ and _tri'en'nial, em'inent_ and _im'minent, op'pose'_ and _sup'pose',_ etc.
Sounds of Vowels in Different Positions.
Let us now consider the value of vowels.
We note first that position at the end of a word naturally makes every vowel long except _y_; (e. g., _Levi, Jehu, potato_); but _a_ has the Italian sound at the end of a word, or the sound usually given to _ah_.
A vowel followed by two or more consonants is almost invariably short. If a vowel is followed by one consonant in an accented syllable it will probably receive the accent and be long. If the word has two syllables, as in _Kinah,_ but if the word has three syllables the consonant will probably receive the accent and the vowel will be short, as in _Jo`n'adab_.
In words of three or more syllables the vowels are naturally short unless made long by position or the like; but the vowel in the syllable before the one which receives the accent, if it is the first syllable of the word and followed by but one consonant, is likely to be long, because the consonant which would otherwise end the syllable is drawn over to the accented syllable, as in _di:-men'-sion_. This rule is still more in force if no consonant intervenes, as _i_ in _di:-am'-e-ter_. If the vowel is followed by two consonants which naturally unite, as in _di:-gress,_ it is also long. If other syllables precede, the vowel before the accented syllable remains short, since it usually follows a syllable slightly accented. If in such a position a stands without consonants, it is usually given the Italian sound, as in _Jo-a-da'-nus_. When two _a_'s come together in different syllables, the first _a_ will usually have the Italian sound unless it is accented, as in _Ja-a`k'-o-bah_.
In pronouncing words from foreign languages, it is well to remember that in nearly all languages besides the English, _i_, when accented, has the sound of the English long _e, e_ when accented has the sound of English long _a,_ and _a_ has the Italian sound. The English long sounds are seldom or never represented in foreign words by the corresponding letters. The sound of English long _i_ is represented by a combination of letters, usually, such as _ei_.
We may also remember that in Teutonic languages _g_ is usually hard even before _e, i,_ and _y,_ but in Romance languages, or languages derived from the Latin, these vowels make the _g_ and _c_ soft.
_Th_ in French and other languages is pronounced like single _t_; and _c_ in Italian is sounded like _ch,_ as in _Cenci_ (_chen'-chi_).
Cultured Pronunciation.
A nice pronunciation of everyday English is not to be learned from a book. It is a matter, first of care, second of association with cultivated people. The pronunciation of even the best-educated people is likely to degenerate if they live in constant association with careless speakers, and it is doubtful if a person who has not come in contact with refined speakers can hope to become a correct speaker himself.
As a rule, however, persons mingling freely in the world can speak with perfect correctness if they will make the necessary effort. Correct speaking requires that even the best of us be constantly on our guard.
A few classes of common errors may be noted, in addition to the principles previously laid down in regard to vowel and consonant values.
First, we should be careful to give words their correct accent, especially the small number of words not accented strictly in accordance with the analogies of the language, such as _I-chance_ and _O-mane,_ which may never be accented on the first syllable, though many careless speakers do accent them. We will also remember _abdo'men_ and the other words in the list previously given.
Second, we should beware of a habit only too prevalent in the United States of giving syllables not properly accented some share of the regular accent. Dickens ridicules this habit unmercifully in "Martin Chuckle." Words so mispronounced are _ter'-ri-to'-ry, ex'-act'-ly, isn't-best, big-cle,_ etc. In the latter word this secondary accent is made to lengthen the _y,_ and so causes a double error. The habit interferes materially with the musical character of easy speech and destroys the desirable musical rhythm which prose as well as poetry should have.
Third, the vowel _a_ in such syllables as those found in _command, chant, chance, graft, staff, pass, clasp,_ etc., should not have the flat sound heard in _as, gas,_ etc., nor should it have the broad Italian sound heard in _father,_ but rather a sound between. Americans should avoid making their _a_'s too flat in words ending in _ff, ft, ss, st, sk,_ and _sp_ preceded by _a,_ and in some words in which a is followed by _nce_ and _nt,_ and even _nd,_ and Englishmen should avoid making them too broad.
Fourth, avoid giving _u_ the sound of _oo_ on all occasions. After _r_ and in a few other positions we cannot easily give it any other sound, but we need not say _soot'-a-ble, soo-per-noo-mer-a-ry; nor noos, stoo,_ etc.
Fifth, the long _o_ sound in words like _both, boat, coat,_ etc., should be given its full value, with out being obscured. New England people often mispronounce these words by shortening the _o_. Likewise they do not give the _a_ in _care, bear, fair,_ etc., and the e in _where, there,_ and _their,_ the correct sound, a modification of the long _a_. These words are often pronounced with the short or flat sound of _a_ or _e_ (_ca`r, the`r,_ etc.).
Sixth, the obscured sound of _a_ in _wander, what,_ etc., should be between broad _a_ as in _all_ and Italian _a_ as in _far_. It is about equivalent to _o_ in _not_.
Seventh, _a, e, i, o_ (except in accented syllables), and _u_ are nearly alike in sound when followed by _r,_ and no special effort should be made to distinguish _a, o,_ or _a,_ though the syllables containing them have in fact the slightest possible more volume than those containing _e_ or _i_ followed by _r_. Careless speakers, or careful speakers who are not informed, are liable to try to make more of a distinction than really exists.
In addition to these hints, the student will of course make rigorous application of principles before stated. _G_ and _c_ will be soft before _e, i,_ and _y,_ hard before other vowels and all consonants; vowels receiving the accent on the second syllable from the end (except _i_) will be pronounced long (and we shall not hear _au-da`'-cious_ for _auda:'-cious_); and all vowels but _a_ in the third syllable or farther from the end will remain short if followed by a consonant, though we should be on the lookout for such exceptions as _ab-ste:'-mious,_ etc. (As the _u_ is kept long we will say _tr_u`'_-cu-lency_ [troo], not _tr_u`_c'-u-lency,_ and _s_u:'_-pernu-merary,_ not _s_u`_p'-ernumerary,_ etc.).
These hints should be supplemented by reference to a good dictionary or list of words commonly mispronounced.
CHAPTER V.
A SPELLING DRILL.
The method of using the following story of Robinson Crusoe, specially arranged as a spelling drill, should include these steps:
1. Copy the story paragraph by paragraph, with great accuracy, noting every punctuation mark, paragraph indentations, numbers, and headings. Words that should appear in italics should be underlined once, in small capitals twice, in capitals three times. After the copy has been completed, compare it word by word with the original, and if errors are found, copy the entire story again from beginning to end, and continue to copy it till the copy is perfect in every way.
2. When the story has been accurately copied with the original before the eyes, let some one dictate it, and copy from the dictation, afterward comparing with the original, and continuing this process till perfection is attained.
3. After the ability to copy accurately from dictation has been secured, write out the story phonetically. Lay aside the phonetic version for a week and then write the story out from this version with the ordinary spelling, subsequently comparing with the original until the final version prepared from the phonetic version is accurate in every point.
The questions may be indefinitely extended. After this story has been fully mastered, a simple book like "Black Beauty" will furnish additional material for drill. Mental observations, such as those indicated in the notes and questions, should become habitual.
THE STORY OF ROBINSON CRUSOE. (For Dictation.)
I.
(Once writers of novels were called liars by some people, because they made up out of their heads the stories they told. In our day we know that there is more truth in many a novel than in most histories. The story of Robinson Crusoe was indeed founded upon the experience of a real man, named Alexander Selkirk, who lived seven years upon a deserted island. Besides that, it tells more truly than has been told in any other writing what a sensible man would do if left to care for himself, as Crusoe was.)
1. A second storm came upon us (says Crusoe in telling his own story), which carried us straight away westward. Early in the morning, while the wind was still blowing very hard, one of the men cried out, "Land!" We had no sooner run out of the cabin than the ship struck upon a sandbar, and the sea broke over her in such a manner that we were driven to shelter from the foam and spray.
Questions and Notes. What is peculiar about _writers, liars, know, island, straight, foam, spray?_ (Answer. In _liars_ we have _ar,_ not _er_. In the others, what silent letters?) Make sentences containing _right, there, hour, no, strait, see,_ correctly used. Point out three words in which _y_ has been changed to _i_ when other letters were added to the word. Indicate two words in which _ea_ has different sounds. Find the words in which silent _e_ was dropped when a syllable was added. What is peculiar about _sensible? cabin? driven? truly? Crusoe?_
To remember the spelling of _their,_ whether it is _ei_ or _ie,_ note that it refers to what _they_ possess, _theyr_ things--- the _y_ changed to _i_ when _r_ is added.
II.
2. We were in a dreadful condition, and the storm having ceased a little, we thought of nothing but saving our lives. In this distress the mate of our vessel laid ho a boat we had on board, and with the help of the other men got her flung over the ship's side. Getting all into her, we let her go and committed ourselves, eleven in number, to God's mercy and the wild sea.
(While such a wind blew, you may be sure they little knew where the waves were driving them, or if they might not be beaten to pieces on the rocks. No doubt the waves mounted to such a height and the spray caused such a mist that they could see only the blue sky above them.)
3. After we had driven about a league and a half, a raging wave, mountain high, took us with such fury that it overset the boat, and, separating us, gave us hardly time to cry, "Oh, God!"
Questions and Notes. What words in the above paragraphs contain the digraph _ea_? What sound does it represent in each word? What other digraphs are found in words in the above paragraphs? What silent letters? What principle or rule applies to _condition? having? distress? getting? committed? eleven?_ What is peculiar about _thought? lives? laid? mercy? blew? pieces? mountain? league? half? could?_ Compare _ei_ in height and _i_ alone in _high_. Think of _nothing_ as _no thing._ To remember the _ie_ in _piece,_ remember that _pie_ and _piece_ are spelled in the same way. _Separate_ has an _a_ in the second syllable-- like _part,_ since _separate_ means to "_part_ in two." You easily the word PART in SEPARATE, Observe that _ful_ in _dreadful_ has but one _l_.
III.
4. That wave carried me a vast way on toward shore, and having spent itself went back, leaving me upon the land almost dry, but half dead with the water I had taken into my lungs and stomach. Seeing myself nearer the mainland than I had expected, with what breath I had left I got upon my feet and endeavored with all my strength to make toward land as fast as I could.
5. I was wholly buried by the next wave that came upon me, but again I was carried a great way toward shore. I was ready to burst with holding my breath, when to my relief I found my head and hands shoot above the surface of the water. I was covered again with water, and dashed against a rock. The blow, taking my breast and side, beat the breath quite out of my body. I held fast by the piece of rock, however, and then, although very weak, I fetched another run, so that I succeeded in getting to the mainland, where I sat me down, quite out of reach of the water.
Questions and Notes. In what words in the preceding paragraphs has silent _a_ been dropped on adding a syllable? In what words do you find the digraph _ea,_ and what sound does it have in each? How many different sounds of _ea_ do you find? What is the difference between _breath_ and _breathe---all_ the differences? How many l's in _almost?_
In what other compounds does _all_ drop one _l_? Why do we not have two _r_'s in _covered_? (Answer. The syllable containing _er_ is not accented. Only accented syllables double a final single consonant on adding a syllable.) What rule applies in the formation of _carried? having? endeavored? buried? taking? although? getting?_ What is peculiar in _toward? half? water? stomach? wholly? again? body? succeeded? of?_
To remember whether _relief, belief,_ etc., have the digraph _ie_ or _ei,_ notice that _e_ just precedes _f_ in the alphabet and in the word, while the _i_ is nearer the _l_; besides, the words contain the word _lie_. In _receive, receipt,_ the _e_ is placed nearest the _c_, which it is nearest in the alphabet. Or, think of _lice: i_ follows _l_ and _e_ follows _a,_ as in the words _believe_ and _receive_.
Observe the two _l_'s in _wholly,---_ one in _whole_; we do not have _wholely,_ as we might expect. Also observe that in _again_ and _against ai_ has the sound of _e_ short, as _a_ has that sound in _any_ and _many_.
IV.
6. I believe it is impossible truly to express what the ecstasies of the soul are when it is so saved, as I may say, out of the grave. "For sudden joys, like sudden griefs, confound at first."
7. I walked about on the shore, my whole being wrapped up in thinking of what I had been through, and thanking God for my deliverance. Not one soul had been saved but myself. Nor did I afterward see any sign of them, except three of their hats, one cap, and two shoes.
8. I soon began to look about me. I had no change of clothes, nor anything either to eat or drink; nor did I see anything before me but dying of hunger or being eaten by wild beasts.
(Crusoe afterward cast up a sort of ledger account of the good and evil in his lot. On the side of evil he placed, first, the fact that he had been thrown upon a bare and barren island, with no hope of escape. Against this he set the item that he alone had been saved. On the side of evil he noted that he had no clothes; but on the other hand, this was a warm climate, where he could hardly wear clothes if he had them. Twenty-five years later he thought he would be perfectly happy if he were not in terror of men coming to his island--who, he feared, might eat him.)
Questions and Notes. How do you remember the _ie_ in _believe, grief,_ etc.? Give several illustrations from the above paragraphs of the principle that we have a double consonant (in an accented penultimate syllable) after a short vowel. Give illustrations of the single consonant after a long vowel. Make a list of the words containing silent letters, including all digraphs. What letter does _true_ have which _truly_ does not? Is _whole_ pronounced like _hole? wholly_ like _holy?_ What is the difference between _clothes_ and _cloths?_ What sound has _a_ in _any_? How do you remember that _i_ follows _e_ in _their?_ What rule applies in the formation of _dying_? Point out two words or more in the above in which we have a silent _a_ following two consonants to indicate a preceding long vowel. Give cases of a digraph followed by a silent _e_. (Note. Add silent _e_ to _past_ and make _paste_---long _a_.) Is the _i_ in _evil_ sounded? There were no _bears_ upon this island. Mention another kind of _bear_. Observe the difference between _hardware_-- iron goods--and _hard wear,_ meaning tough usage. What is peculiar about _soul? impossible? ecstasies? wrapped? deliverance? sign? except? shoes? hunger? thrown? terror? island?_
V.
9. I decided to climb into a tree and sit there until the next day, to think what death I should die. As night came on my heart was heavy, since at night beasts come abroad for their prey. Having cut a short stick for my defense, I took up my lodging on a bough, and fell fast asleep. I afterward found I had no reason to fear wild beasts, for never did I meet any harmful animal.
10. When I awoke it was broad day, the weather was clear and I saw the ship driven almost to the rock where I had been so bruised. The ship seeming to stand upright still, I wished myself aboard, that I might save some necessary things for my use.
(Crusoe shows his good judgment in thinking at once of saving something from the ship for his after use. While others would have been bemoaning their fate, he took from the vessel what he knew would prove useful, and in his very labors he at last found happiness. Not only while his home-building was new, but even years after, we find him still hard at work and still inventing new things.)
Questions and Notes. There are two _l_'s in _till_; why not in _until?_
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